消费习惯广告的两难困境

对于那些试图培养消费者的消费习惯、锁定目标用户的广告主来说,这一研究成果很好地揭示其市场营销策略上的两难困境。在没有养成消费习惯之前,习惯行为提示型的广告语或许是有效的,它能促使消费者尽快增加消费频次,养成良好的消费习惯;对于那些已养成消费习惯的消费者来说,习惯行为提示型广告的效果可能适得其反,消费者或许会想,自己是不是消费次数太过频繁了？     

The role of advertising in consumer emotion management

Consumer research has demonstrated that emotions play an important role in the decisionmaking process. Individuals may use consumption or purchasing as a way to manage their emotions. This research develops a model to help explain the process by which individuals engage in consumption to manage their emotions, and examines the efficacy of an advertisement for a hedonic product that uses affect-laden language to stimulate such a process. Results suggest that favourable emotional responses from an advertisement can lead to positive attitudes towards the advertisement, prefactual thinking in the form of hedonic rationalisations and greater behavioural intentions. Additionally, guilt from consuming and purchasing these hedonic products can be mitigated, which is also associated with greater behavioural intentions. Findings have implications for marketers and advertisers of hedonic products.     

The impact of advertising on consumer price sensitivity in experience goods markets

In this paper we use Nielsen scanner panel data on four categories of consumer goods to examine how TV advertising and other marketing activities affect the demand curve facing a brand. Advertising can affect consumer demand in many different ways. Becker and Murphy (Quarterly Journal of Economics 108:941–964, 1993) have argued that the “presumptive case” should be that advertising works by raising marginal consumers’ willingness to pay for a brand. This has the effect of flattening the demand curve, thus increasing the equilibrium price elasticity of demand and the lowering the equilibrium price. Thus, “advertising is profitable not because it lowers the elasticity of demand for the advertised good, but because it raises the level of demand.” Our empirical results support this conjecture on how advertising shifts the demand curve for 17 of the 18 brands we examine. There have been many prior studies of how advertising affects two equilibrium quantities: the price elasticity of demand and/or the price level. Our work is differentiated from previous work primarily by our focus on how advertising shifts demand curves as a whole. As Becker and Murphy pointed out, a focus on equilibrium prices or elasticities alone can be quite misleading. Indeed, in many instances, the observation that advertising causes prices to fall and/or demand elasticities to increase, has misled authors into concluding that consumer “price sensitivity” must have increased, meaning the number of consumers’ willing to pay any particular price for a brand was reduced—perhaps because advertising makes consumers more aware of substitutes. But, in fact, a decrease in the equilibrium price is perfectly consistent with a scenario where advertising actually raises each individual consumer’s willingness to pay for a brand. Thus, we argue that to understand how advertising affects consumer price sensitivity one needs to estimate how it shifts the whole distribution of willingness to pay in the population. This means estimating how it shifts the shape of the demand curve as a whole, which in turn means estimating a complete demand system for all brands in a category—as we do here. We estimate demand systems for toothpaste, toothbrushes, detergent and ketchup. Across these categories, we find one important exception to conjecture that advertising should primarily increase the willingness to pay of marginal consumers. The exception is the case of Heinz ketchup. Heinz advertising has a greater positive effect on the WTP of infra-marginal consumers. This is not surprising, because Heinz advertising focuses on differentiating the brand on the “thickness” dimension. This is a horizontal dimension that may be highly valued by some consumers and not others. The consumers who most value this dimension have the highest WTP for Heinz, and, by focusing on this dimension; Heinz advertising raises the WTP of these infra-marginal consumers further. In such a case, advertising is profitable because it reduces the market share loss that the brand would suffer from any given price increase. In contrast, in the other categories we examine, advertising tends to focus more on vertical attributes.

Competing for consumer memory in television advertising

The purpose of this study is to examine how brand recall and recognition are affected by non-editorial clutter in mega-event broadcasting. Using longitudinal data collected during four years of Super Bowl broadcasts, this study investigates the effects of three different types of television clutter (other ads, on-air promos and TV billboards) and their composite effects on brand memory. The results show that increases in numbers and lengths of other ads and on-air promos negatively affect brand recall and recognition. However, such effect was not found with TV billboards. Theoretical and marketing implications are discussed.     

Assessing the effect of organic-food short storytelling on consumer response

This study explores the influence of organic food storytelling on consumer response. A random sampling method was used to select organic food retail stores and markets, and then collected 578 valid samples by a quota sampling method. Four storytelling types, including individual story, environmental story, price story, and food therapy story, were based on interview results. Based on partial least squares results, organic food storytelling indeed led consumers to prefer natural food, with food therapy storytelling being the most important factor that influenced their preference for natural food. This was followed by environmental story, price story, with the individual story being the last one. Except for the individual story type, the other three story types established more positive consumer attitudes toward organic food. The preference for natural food increased consumers’ purchase intention, followed by attitude toward organic food, and finally by individual story.     

A meta-analysis of consumer choice and subliminal advertising

A meta-analysis is used to demonstrate the ineffectiveness of subliminal advertising to influence the consumer's decision between alternatives. A review of narrative reviews is provided to illustrate that sample size and effect size is seldom used as the basis for evaluating whether subliminal marketing stimuli are an effective means for influencing consumer choice behavior. The results of the meta-analysis indicate that there is very little effect. The resulting coefficient had a value r=0.0585, which places the effectiveness of subliminal advertising on choice between the impact of aspirin on heart attacks and the relationship between alcohol abuse and a tour of duty in Vietnam (Rosenthal, 1990). © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

The effect of weather on consumer spending

There has been a great deal of anecdotal evidence to suggest that weather affects consumer decision making. In this paper, we provide empirical evidence to explain how the weather affects consumer spending and we detail the psychological mechanism that underlies this phenomenon. Specifically, we propose that the effect of weather – and, in particular, sunlight – on consumer spending is mediated by negative affect. That is, as exposure to sunlight increases, negative affect decreases and consumer spending tends to increase. We find strong support for this prediction across a series of three mixed methods studies in both the lab and the field.     

客观看待消费研究对广告营销趋势的影响

大型广告公司都会进行常规的消费研究,以此作为为广告主制订传播推广策略的重要参考。2009年4A广告公司在消费报告发布上的高调,多少是受金融危机影响的表现,是减轻和化解危机影响的一种方式。如果关注一下整体消费市场及媒体投放等多种因素,对消费研究的形势判断就会更加全面。     

Problems of consumer protection against unfair advertising under Italian law

The present paper gives a critical survey of the main trends in the correction of unfair advertising under Italian law. From the viewpoint of consumer interest, such trends appear unsatisfactory in so far as they refer to an average consumer standard, a concept that results in too limited legal intervention. Aside from this, consumer associations and groups are still barred from access to legal action under unfair competition law. Thus, the most adequate legal model to date, seems to be the one founded on the administrative authorization of advertising, which embodies a preventive control of advertisements. Discussed also are self-regulation norms and practices, whose recent improvement is nevertheless insufficient to overcome structural defects.

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Probleme des Verbraucherschutzes gegenüber unlauterer Werbung im italienischen Recht

Zusammenfassung In Italien gibt es kein auf die Belange des Verbraucherschutzes zugeschnittenes Werberecht. Täuschende und irreführende Werbeangaben gegenüber Verbrauchern werden unter bestimmten Umständen als »unlauterer Wettbewerb« behandelt. Das italienische Recht regelt dabei nur solche Werbeaussagen, die ganz bestimmte Tatsachen enthalten, womit also Übertreibungen auch täuschenden Inhalts keiner Rechtskontrolle unterliegen. Umgekehrt fehlt ein Grundsatz, daß die Werbung ein Mindestmaß an Informationen enthalten muß; das Unterlassen von Angaben wird nicht als Täuschung angesehen. Die Irreführung wird nicht an den von einer Werbebotschaft betroffenen Verbrauchern gemessen, sondern an einem fiktiven Maßstab des »Durchschnittsverbrauchers«.Der Autor kritisiert diese Voraussetzungen des Irreführungsverbotes im italienischen Recht und weist auf Widersprüche in den Begründungszusammenhängen, aber auch auf neue Tendenzen hin. Das Werbestrafrecht kennt in einigen Bereichen strengere Maßstäbe.Die Rechtsdurchsetzung im italienischen Recht weist viele Lücken auf. So haben Verbraucherverbände kein Klagerecht. Eine präventive Werbekontrolle findet praktisch nicht statt. Es sollte deshalb überlegt werden, die verwaltungsrechtliche Kontrolle der Werbung zu erweitern.Die inzwischen auch in Italien ausgebaute Werbeselbstkontrolle befriedigt vom Verbraucherstandpunkt aus nicht. Die Selbstbeschränkungsabkommen sind rechtlich nicht verbindlich. Nur als Ergänzung, nicht aber als Ersatz einer staatlichen Werbekontrolle erscheinen sie sinnvoll.

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Gustavo Ghidini is Professor of Law at the University of Modena, Italy. His address is: Via C. Battisti 8, I-20122 Milan, Italy. In 1973 he became a founder of the Comitato Difesa Consumatori, an association now member of Bureau Européen des Unions de Consommateurs (B. E. U. C.).     

Effects of ethnic advertising on consumers of minority and majority groups: the moderating effect of humor

The effects of portrayals of ethnic endorsers in advertising are ambiguous. These portrayals strengthen the ethnic identity of ethnic minority groups, thus leading to positive responses toward the ad. They can lead to negative responses, because these portrayals can be perceived as stereotyped. Humor is a tool that can increase positive effects of identity-building and reduce negative effects of stereotyping. In this study, we investigate how humor moderates the effects of ethnic advertising on consumers from ethnic minority and majority groups. We find that humor supports the effects of traditional portrayals for both groups. Moreover, the effect of traditional portrayals combined with humor is strongest for the minority group. These findings provide evidence for the positive effects of humor in ethnic advertising and thus provide new insights to the stereotyping, ethnic advertising, and humor literature. The findings have practical implications for advertising using ethnic endorsers, humor, or targeted at ethnic minority groups.     

The effect of loyalty program expiration policy on consumer behavior

Although loyalty programs can help divert costs to the future by using delayed rewards, unredeemed program currency can become significant liability for the firm. To alleviate this concern, many programs have introduced a point expiration date or have shortened their expiration time horizon. This issue of point expiration has received scant attention in the literature. Contrary to an intuitive negative effect one would expect from a more stringent expiration policy, our real-life data and lab experiment demonstrated that a finite expiration policy can affect purchases positively but only for consumers who have the flexibility to adapt their behavior to such a policy. We identified usage level and engagement in multi-store shopping as two sources contributing to flexibility. Overall, our findings point to a need to understand one’s customer base to design the optimal point expiration policy and program communication.     

The effect of phosphate detergent bans on consumer clothing expenditures

Metropolitan sales data from the 1977 Census of Retail Trade were analysed to test whether phosphate detergent bans increased consumer expenditure on clothing: positive effects were found for men's clothing and domestic fabrics (sheets and towels). In areas with medium water hardness the average annual cost in 1977 equalled $11·08 per household. For 1984, the equivalent cost was $14·17 per household. These results are consistent with laboratory studies that show decreased detergency associated with non-phosphate detergents and increased fabric wear associated with carbonate-built detergents, the principle substitute for phosphate detergents. The bans impose the largest cost on hard water areas. In both ban and non-ban areas in 1977 higher laundering costs were associated with higher water hardness. Analysis of 1972 data indicated that water hardness did not affect clothing expenditures significantly when detergents contained large amounts of phosphates.     

Effects of comparative advertising format on consumer responses: The moderating effects of brand image and attribute relevance

In this research we distinguish between ads that compare two different brands (Across-Brand Comparison or ABC ads) and those that compare different versions of the same brand (Within-Brand Comparison or WBC ads). Results from an experiment indicate that when comparative ads use attributes that are relevant to product performance, ad type and brand image interact such that an ABC ad leads to less favorable consumer perceptions than a WBC ad when image of the sponsor brand is low but not when it is high. However, when the ads use attributes that are irrelevant to product performance an ABC ad leads to less favorable consumer outcomes than a WBC ad, regardless of the image of the sponsor brand. We further propose and show that ad believability mediates these effects. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed and directions for future research are provided.     

The effect of exogenous product familiarity on endogenous consumer search

When a consumer is familiar with one product but not its competitor, she is faced with a decision: either buy what she knows, or engage in search to learn more. When search is costly, competing firms may attempt to encourage or discourage search by adjusting prices. In this paper we consider how competitive dynamics between two quality differentiated firms are affected if one product enjoys a familiarity advantage. Familiarity is defined as a consumer’s ex-ante knowledge of fit for a particular product. An increase in the level of familiarity for one product allows a firm to charge higher prices since there are more consumers with information on that product relative to the competition. We call this the direct effect of familiarity. However, an increase in familiarity also has an indirect effect, since it gives the rival firm a stronger incentive to decrease price in order to encourage searching, in turn increasing overall competition. The effect of familiarity on profits depends on the magnitudes of these effects, and it is moderated by the level of quality differentiation between products. For very high or very low levels of differentiation, the results are relatively straightforward. However, when the level of differentiation is moderate, the results are more nuanced, with the higher-quality firm realizing higher profits from more familiarity, even if it must lower prices due to the indirect effect. We also find that, contrary to conventional wisdom, overall competition may be higher when firms are more quality differentiated. This is driven by the fact that higher quality differences bolster the indirect effect, with a lower quality firm providing deeper price cuts to counter increased familiarity of a high quality rival. We conclude by examining how changes in the cost of searching impact equilibrium outcomes.

     

The effect of attribute-based and alternative-based processing on consumer choice in context

The current research proposes that the extent to which consumer choices are affected by the decision process depends on the underlying nature of the choice problem. Specifically, choices resulting from substantial inter-brand comparisons and tradeoff analyses are vulnerable to whether product information is evaluated by attribute- or alternative-based processing. By contrast, choices resulting from a minimal cognitive processing are less sensitive to variations in the decision strategy employed. We test our theory in the well-known domain of choice context effects. Across three studies using multiple operationalizations of the decision process (i.e., information display format, product presentation mode, and processing goal), we find converging evidence that the more cognitively involving compromise choice increases when the environment facilitates attribute- versus alternative-based processing. Conversely, the choice of asymmetrically dominating option, which is characterized by relatively little analytical processing, does not depend on the type of decision strategy highlighted by the task.     

The effect of the EEA Agreement on consumer protection interests in Sweden

This article deals primarily with the expected effects of the EEA Agreement on consumer law in Sweden: How EEA law is implemented, what problems have been encountered and will be met; the application of the principle of minimum harmonization; how dormant EC legislation in some instances may possibly impede initiatives to improve consumer protection; and what will happen with the so-called Nordic Model, i.e., the ability to maintain and develop a system for consumer rights by means of agreements between the Consumer Ombudsman and businesses and their trade associations.

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Die Auswirkung der EWR-Vereinbarung auf Verbraucherschutzbemühungen in Schweden

Zusammenfassung Behandelt werden vor allem die erwarteten Effekte der EWR-Vereinbarung auf das schwedische Verbraucherrecht: Wie EWR-Recht eingeführt wird, welche Probleme bereits aufgetaucht sind und welche noch entstehen werden, die Anwendung des Prinzips der geringstmöglichen Harmonisierung, wie latente EG-Gesetzgebung in manchen Fällen Ansätze zur Verbesserung des Verbraucherschutzes behindern können, was mit dem sogenannten Nordischen Modell geschehen wird, vor allen Dingen mit der Fähigkeit, ein System von Verbraucherrechten aufrechtzuerhalten und zu entwickeln über den Weg von Vereinbarungen zwischen dem Verbraucherombudsman einerseits und Herstellern und Handel andererseits.

     

The effect of affective response to corporate social irresponsibility on consumer resistance behaviour: validation of a dual-channel model

ABSTRACT

This paper delineates a dual-channel model of consumer resistance towards corporate social irresponsibility. The model assumes a conditional mediational relationship among affective response to corporate social irresponsibility and ethical judgement as drivers of consumers’ inclination towards boycotting, protesting and negative word-of-mouth. Mediation-analysis results are largely in line with the model hypotheses: Affective response to corporate social irresponsibility solely has a significant direct effect on resistance inclination of consumers with a low preference for ethical products. Moreover, contractualistic and moral equity (utilitarian) judgement mediate(s) the effect of affective response on resistance intention for consumers with high (low) ethical product preferences. Based on the empirical findings, the paper presents practical implications and avenues for future research.