Corporate Environmental Responsibility and the Cost of Capital: International Evidence

We examine how corporate environmental responsibility (CER) affects the cost of equity capital for manufacturing firms in 30 countries. Using several approaches to estimate firms’ ex ante equity financing costs, we find in regressions that control for firm-level characteristics as well as industry, year, and country effects that the cost of equity capital is lower when firms have higher CER. This finding is robust to addressing endogeneity through instrumental variables, to using alternative specifications and proxies for the cost of equity capital, and to accounting for noise in analyst forecasts. We conclude that investment in CER reduces firms’ equity financing costs worldwide.     

对我国上市公司股权资本运作创新的分析——以TCL集团“阿波罗计划”为例

股权资本的运作在我国尚处于起步阶段,但股权资本运作对企业和证券市场的发展却有非常重要的作用。随着我国加入WTO后对外开放水平的进一步加大,中国企业面临的挑战更加严峻。企业需要做大做强,单凭内部积累是远远不够的,必须进行产业整合,走产业兼并重组的道路。TCL集团的＂阿波罗计划＂是一次创新性的股权资本运作,这其中很多做法都是国内首创。     

Exchange-listing effects on a firm's cost of equity capital

Matched pairs (based on asset size and industry) of a sample of exchange-listed and over-the-counter (OTC) firms are utilized to test for the existence of a statistically significant difference between them with respect to their cost of equity capital. It is found that exchange-listed firm's cost of equity capital (alternatively measured by the systematic risk and the total risk associated with a firm's rate of return) is significantly less than that of comparable OTC firms.     

Capital Utilisation and Scale in the English and Welsh Water Industry

The study estimates a variable cost model of the UK water industry. From this variable cost function, estimates of economies of scale and economies of capital utilisation and capacity utilisation are made. The data used cover 20 English and Welsh water companies. The results suggest that only slight, albeit, significant dis-economies of scale and substantial diseconomies of capital utilisation exist in the industry. These estimates indicate that if output increases, with or without holding capital constant, variable costs would increase at a level above the proportional increase in output. If the water industry is not in long-term equilibrium, in terms of capital, neither merger nor acquisition amongst water companies are justified in terms of cost efficiency. A low level of capital utilisation is also indicated for the water industry. It is shown that the level of capital utilisation does increase over the sample period to approximately 30 per cent in 1996, indicating dis-equilibrium, in terms of capital, is present in this sector.     

Merger Patterns in the European Food Supply Chain

This paper investigates merger activity in the food supply chain in Europe as a whole, with an emphasis upon eight individual countries that were most merger active. It finds that M&A activity (vertical, horizontal, inward, and outward) has been substantial in both the production and distribution parts of the supply chain. Using spectral analysis, it also concludes that: (i) there are regular cyclical patterns in merger activity in seven of the eight countries; (ii) most countries exhibit strong coherency with overall EU merger activity in the food industry; (iii) the relative cyclical pattern of mergers in food manufacturing and retailing varies country to country; (iv) there is some evidence that mergers in manufacturing lead or Granger cause mergers in retailing; and (iv) patterns of merger activity in each of the countries studied (except for the UK and the Netherlands) are linked, at least in part, to business and capital market cycles.     

Determining the cost of common equity capital: The direct method

One of the most critical aspects of the corporate capital budgeting process is the determination of a proper “hurdle rate” or “cut-off” rate to employ in the screening of proposed uses of funds. This hurdle rate is now commonly referred to in both industry and the literature of financial management as the cost of capital. General agreement on how to measure the equity component of the cost of capital (i.e., the cost of common equity) has not yet been achieved by either practitioners or theorists. A unique approach that shows considerable promise differs from the abstract mathematical techniques typically used. It involves quizzing directly a sample of the corporation's existing common stockholders as to their dividend and capital gain expectations. Proper interpretation of the responses can provide top corporate management with an estimate of the cost of equity capital, as represented by the returns (expected) by shareholders. Thus, top level management has more complete information from the firm's owners on the returns that are expected from the investment of retained earnings.     

治理环境、股权制衡与股权融资成本

以2004—2006年非金融上市公司为样本,结合中国转轨经济背景,基于终极控制人视角,实证检验中国上市公司的股权制衡结构是否有助于降低其股权融资成本,进而检验股权制衡与股权融资成本的关系是否受公司终极控制人、制衡股东性质及其外部治理环境的影响。研究发现:中国上市公司股权制衡与股权融资成本虽负相关但并不显著;在终极控制人、制衡股东分属不同性质的公司中,股权制衡与股权融资成本显著负相关,而在二者分属于同一性质的公司中,股权制衡与股权融资成本呈正相关或不显著的负相关关系;进一步检验发现,上市公司所处地区的治理环境越差,股权制衡与股权融资成本的负相关关系越显著,公司股权制衡与其治理环境在影响股权融资成本方面存在显著替代效应。     

Can Industry Consolidation Lead to Greater Efficiencies? Evidence from the U.S. Defense Industry

The question of whether mergers in various industries lead to greater market power or improved efficiencies has been the subject of numerous public policy debates. This analysis focuses on the impact of consolidation in the U.S. defense industry over the past 20 years and examines the reasons behind the wave of defense consolidation, the results in terms of the reduction in contractors, the antitrust response to mergers, and evidence on the impact of the mergers on weapons systems’ total and per-unit costs. The analysis finds that merger activity was driven less by declines in spending following the Cold War than by a stronger economy and a vibrant financial market. The cost data show that 39 to 44 percent of systems experienced statistically significant change in either total costs or per-unit costs following a merger. Somewhat more systems were likely to exhibit lower postmerger per-unit costs than higher per-unit costs, suggesting improved efficiency. The analysis also examines the impact on weapon systems cost by type of weapons system, manufacturer, and service (Army, Navy, Air Force). The evidence suggested greater efficiencies following consolidation for many sectors. Army and Navy systems overall showed lower per-unit costs, but the Air Force weapons systems showed mixed results.     

Political risk and the cost of capital in the MENA region

We examine the impact of political risk in the MENA region on the cost at which firms can raise capital. Using the implied cost of equity as a measure of the cost of capital and ICRG's political risk rating as a proxy for political risk, we find that political risk results in a higher cost of capital. Economically, our results suggest that a one standard deviation increase in the political risk index is associated with a 450 basis points increase in the cost of equity capital of MENA firms. Our results are consistent across a battery of robustness checks. Our findings have important policy implications that are relevant to the MENA region and beyond.     

Mergers and the Evolution of Patterns of Corporate Ownership and Control: The British Experience

An intense academic debate has arisen recently concerning the crucial ‘bedrock’ that underpins a corporate governance regime where widely held public companies dominate. In the discourse, little has been said about the contribution of merger activity. This article seeks to address this gap by considering developments in the United Kingdom during the twentieth century. The British experience suggests that mergers matter with respect to the evolution of systems of ownership and control and that the manner in which anti-competitive behaviour is regulated influences the extent to which ‘transformative’ merger activity takes place.     

Management entrenchment and the cost of equity capital

This paper investigates the effect of management entrenchment on the cost of equity capital. Using the Bebchuk et al. (2009) entrenchment index data from 1989 through 2002, and using mainly the Ohlson and Juettner-Nauroth (2005) method to estimate the cost of capital, we find that increases (decreases) in management entrenchment are associated with increases (decreases) in costs of equity capital.     

Restructuring of the Danish pork industry: The role of mergers and takeovers, 1960–2010

This article examines the origins and effects of the evolution of the Danish pork industry characterised by three main merger waves resulting in 43 realised mergers and takeovers. The findings illuminate – in contrast to the traditional strategically motivated rationale – that the majority of the mergers were realised by cooperatives due to the inability to give the pig farmers competitive yearly refunds vis-à-vis local competitors, to financial difficulties or to the lack of investment capability of one of the merging parties. Despite a high-risky strategy, mergers and takeovers became the preferred consolidation mean due to capital constrains and the ‘close’ ownership structure of the cooperatives. Moreover, the study demonstrates that the outcomes of the M&A activities were generally positive.     

Some consequences of the early twentieth-century British divorce of ownership from control

Because ownership was already more divorced from control in the largest stock market of 1911 (London) than in the largest stock market of 1995 (New York), the consequences for the economy, for good or ill, could have been considerable. Using a large sample of quoted companies with capital of £1 million or more, this article shows that this separation did not generally operate against shareholders' interests, despite the very substantial potential for agency problems. More directors were apparently preferable to fewer over a considerable range, as far as their influence on company share price and return on equity was concerned: company directors were not simply ornamental. A greater number of shareholders was more in shareholders' interest than a smaller, despite the enhanced difficulties of coordinating shareholder ‘voice’. A larger share of votes controlled by the board combined with greater board share ownership was also on average consistent with a greater return on equity. Corporate governance thus appears to have been well adapted to the circumstances of the Edwardian company capital market. Hence the reduction in the cost of capital for such a large proportion of British business conferred a substantial advantage on the economy.     

商业银行资本缓冲水平的决定因素——基于我国上市银行的实证分析

文章使用动态面板数据对我国13家上市银行2000年至2010年间持有的资本缓冲水平与经济周期、资本收益率、资产风险水平和资产规模之间的关系进行实证分析。结果表明我国上市银行的资本缓冲水平与经济周期和银行规模之间存在显著的正相关关系,此外资本缓冲水平还受到资本调整成本、资本收益率和资产质量的显著影响。最后在实证分析的基础上为我国银行监管部门如何落实《巴塞尔协议Ⅲ》的资本缓冲要求提出政策建议。     

Venture capital secondary funds—the third exit option

This article highlights some of the challenges associated with investing in private equity and, specifically, venture capital, as well as the opportunities presented by the availability of secondary market solutions. Today, the secondary market allows venture capital investors to align liquidity solutions with investment objectives similar to those used in other established markets like real estate and lending. Over the last ten years, it has become clear that exit opportunities for venture‐backed portfolio companies correlate strongly with the state of the economy and its ability to support merger‐and‐acquisition (M&A) and initial public offering (IPO) market activity. Due to their experience and specialization, secondary funds know how to assess quickly potential investments and offer tailored investment solutions. Moreover, these funds offer an attractive exit option that is compelling not only in down economic cycles but also during periods of economic expansion. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Risk and Return in the 20th and 21st Centuries

The single most important contemporary issue in finance is the equity risk premium. This drives future equity returns, and is the key determinant of the cost of capital. The risk premium – the expected reward for bearing the risk of investing in equities, rather than in low-risk investments such as bills or bonds – is usually estimated from historical data. This article starts by summarising new evidence on historical returns in twelve major world markets from the authors' recent book, 'The Millennium Book: A Century of Investment Returns'. The authors show that the historical equity risk premium has been lower than previously believed, and argue that the future risk premium is likely to be lower still. They discuss what this implies for the cost of capital, stock market values, and companies' target rates of return. They suggest that many companies are seeking too high a rate of return and thus run the risk of under-investing.     

Human capital signals and entrepreneurs’ success in equity crowdfunding

Grounding on research about the role of signals in the attraction of equity finance, this paper studies the effects of diverse human capital signals on entrepreneurs’ success in equity crowdfunding. We argue that the human capital of an entrepreneur, who launches (alone or with other teammates) an equity crowdfunding campaign to finance her start-up, constitutes a set of signals of the start-up quality. The impact of each human capital signal on entrepreneur’s success in equity crowdfunding depends on both signal fit with start-up quality and signal ambiguity. Empirical estimates on 284 entrepreneurs who launched equity crowdfunding campaigns indicate that only entrepreneurs’ business education and entrepreneurial experience, two human capital signals that have both a good fit with start-up quality and a low degree of ambiguity, significantly contribute to entrepreneurs’ success in equity crowdfunding.     

Does home bias affect firm value? Evidence from holdings of mutual funds worldwide

This study finds strong evidence that home bias affects firm valuation at both country and firm levels. At the country level, increasing the bias of domestic investors toward home equity lowers the market valuation of home equity. At the firm level, firm value increases as the compositions of local equities held by domestic and foreign investors tend toward the firms' global market capitalization weights, but decreases as their weights deviate from global weights. Overall, the evidence is consistent with the optimal global risk-sharing hypothesis that the greater risk sharing between domestic and foreign investors in international capital markets reduces the cost of capital and hence enhances market valuation.     

独立董事治理、 供应链关系与股权资本成本

本文以2009～2016年我国A股制造业上市公司为研究样本,检验了供应链关系对企业股权资本成本的影响.在此基础上,利用社会网络分析方法进一步考察了独立董事通过董事网络发挥的治理作用对供应链关系与股权资本成本之间关系的影响.研究结果表明:供应链集中度越高,企业的股权资本成本越高,二者显著正相关;进一步研究发现这种关系在独立董事网络位置较差时更加显著.说明网络位置较好的独立董事可以帮助企业获得更多的社会资本,缓解外部资源依赖,发挥更有效的治理效应,从而抑制供应链集中度过高对股权资本成本带来的不利影响.研究结论丰富了供应链关系对股权资本成本的作用机理,并为企业缓解过度依赖供应链关系交易所产生的不利影响提供新的解决思路.     

Corporate Governance and the Cost of Capital: An International Study

This study shows that firms with good corporate governance are consistently associated with both lower cost of equity and cost of debt capital in an international setting. The association between corporate governance and the cost of equity is more pronounced in countries with strong legal systems, extensive disclosure practices, and good government quality. However, the relation between corporate governance and the cost of debt is stronger in countries characterized by weak legal protection, low transparency, and poor government quality. The differential relations can be attributed to asymmetric payoffs received by creditors and shareholders.