Food consumption,lifestyle patterns,and body mass index of a group of white South African students

There is worldwide concern that higher education students are increasingly engaging in unhealthy eating and lifestyle practices. A total of 488 white students participated in a study aimed at investigating the current food consumption and related lifestyle patterns of students at a South African residential university. The respondents’ self‐reported weight and height was used to calculate their body mass index (BMI). Closed and open‐ended questions measured aspects of the respondents’ usual eating patterns and lifestyles. The meal patterns and composition confirmed Western‐orientated food practices, as the majority consumed three meals a day, with in‐between meal snacking, and a different meal pattern over weekends. Respondents’ food intake was further characterized by a low intake of fruit, vegetables, and dairy products and frequent consumption of foods high in fat, sugar, and sodium. Although the majority (66.8%) of the study group were classified as normal weight according to their BMI, when comparing males and females, more males than females were overweight and obese. Only 54% of the males had a normal weight compared to 82% of the females. There was, however, no statistically significant difference (p = 0.149) between how males and females in the different BMI groups felt about their weight. The study also explored the relationships between the respondents’ BMI, gender, food consumption patterns, and type of residence. The features of the food consumption patterns were depicted according to whether breakfast was eaten or not; snacking activity between meals; the consumption of ready‐prepared convenience meals, fast foods; home‐cooked meals; and eating out. There were no statistical significant differences between the BMI categories of males and females regarding their habit to eat breakfast or not; and to snack between meals either during the morning, in the afternoon or after supper. Similarly, no statistical significant differences were noted when relating the BMI categories of the gender groups to the frequency of consumption of ready‐prepared, convenience type meals, fast foods, and home‐cooked meals. However, a statistical significant difference (p‐value 0.006) was found between BMI categories per gender and general frequency of eating out. No statistical differences was noted between BMI categories, gender and place of residence irrespective of the type, whether the student lived with parents, independently in a flat or apartment, or a house with friends or a room, or in a university residence.     

Company and meal choices considered by Nordic adolescents

This article examines the meal choices considered by Nordic adolescents in two social situations: for themselves and for the family. In addition, the frequency of family meals is compared between the countries studied. The survey data (n = 1539) were collected during 2006–2007 from 9th grade students (aged 14–17 years) in Finland, Sweden, Denmark and Norway. Analysis was based on both quantitative variables and open‐ended data. Family meals were found to be less common among Finnish respondents than in the remaining data. In all countries but Denmark, the number of parents in the family had an effect on the frequency of family meals. Meals echoing or fully meeting the structural definition of a ‘proper meal’ were most common when describing meals for the family. The difference between the two social situations was most apparent for those who mentioned ‘Fast food dishes’ for themselves. Gender differences in open‐ended questions were smallest in Denmark and most apparent in Norway. Future studies should focus not only on how many of adolescents eat in what is termed an unhealthy way but also on how they themselves perceive and conceptualize eating, and what kinds of justifications they give to their everyday choices in different social contexts.     

Factors affecting consumer acceptance of chilled ready meals on the island of Ireland

The chilled ready meal market on the island of Ireland is relatively young but is growing rapidly. This paper focused on a consumer questionnaire (n = 702), designed to examine consumer attitudes to and consumption of chilled ready meals, in both the north and south of Ireland. This formed part of a larger study, with the questionnaire findings contributing to an in‐depth sensory study on a selected range of chilled ready meals. For a significant number of Irish consumers, consumption of these products is higher than on the UK mainland. For others, the products are purchased as a convenient alternative or a weekly treat. Respondents in urban locations were significantly more likely to consume chilled ready meals, as were men and younger, single respondents. Irish consumers are becoming more accustomed to ethnic cuisine although traditional meals remain popular. There is a clear need for developers to continue to enhance the sensory quality of these products, particularly as the primary barrier to consumption was a preference for home cooked food. However, they must also strive to maintain consumer interest in the sector, fulfil the desire for convenience and satisfy a more discerning palate.     

Sodium and ready meals: a survey of Irish consumer awareness

The aim of the study was to gain an understanding of Irish consumer attitudes towards ready meals and current sodium issues in Ireland. A questionnaire was distributed to 357 consumers via convenience quota sampling to a range of nationalities in both rural and urban/city areas of Ireland. The survey revealed that a high proportion of respondents (45%; n = 161) were worried about the amount of salt they consumed. Despite this, 58% (n = 207) stated they never look at the sodium/salt contents on nutritional labels with 68% (n = 244) claiming that sodium/salt contents would never affect their buying choice. The survey also uncovered that 76% (n = 270) of the Irish consumers surveyed consider ready meals to be high in sodium and 80% (n = 285) consider them to be an unhealthy option. Despite this, 50% (n = 179) of the respondents consumed a ready meal at least once a week with a further 17% (n = 59) consuming them two to three times a week. Of those who did consume ready meals, 78% (n = 191) chose them due to their convenience. A total of 75% (n = 269) of all the respondents said they would choose a chilled ready meal over its frozen counterpart. The reason for this being attributed to the fact that chilled ready meals were perceived to be healthier (44%; n = 158) and of better quality (54%; n = 194) than their frozen counterparts. Results from this study highlight the need for concerted actions involving consumers, manufacturers and retailers to reduce sodium levels in Irish ready meals, as despite being reasonably aware of the sodium issue consumers were not making informed choices to reduce sodium/salt consumption.     

Factors that influence the consumption of food outside the home in Brazil

The food sector has taken on an unprecedented dynamism in recent years. The processing and distribution of food, although heavily influenced by tradition, have seen intensive innovations, leading to changes in the way individuals consume. One of these changes is the consistent growth of the habit of eating outside the home. Consuming food outside the home involves a number of practices such as eating at commercial establishments that specialize in food (restaurants, fast food restaurants and snack bars) and those that offer food as a part of their services (hotels, in‐flight meals), and non‐commercial alternatives such as the homes of family and friends. In order to describe the eating habits of consumers in the town of Lavras in Minas Gerais State, Brazil, especially when it comes to eating outside the home, a quantitative study was conducted, with 413 questionnaires being distributed by convenience sampling. Among the main results are: (a) a search for variety as a motivator for eating outside the home; (b) convenience as an important element on many occasions of consumption; (c) more intensive consumption and more favourable attitudes towards eating out on the part of younger people, people with higher incomes, no children and a higher degree of schooling; (d) importance of paying for food by the kilo. When compared with a study conducted in England, important similarities were identified in socio‐demographic influences, although the cultural factors are notable when it comes to dishes and the types of eating establishment. The growing habit of eating out has therefore become a worldwide phenomenon, but with cultural and regional differences that have led to different rhythms in terms of change and the way food is supplied. The recovery of embedded cultural habits, with increased value being given to slow food, traditional dishes and tradition itself, appears to co‐exist with a productivity model of food courts, pasteurization and accessible prices. The occasion for consumption, which may be understood as the dichotomies of ‘weekday versus weekend’ or ‘convenience versus leisure’, is an important element that influences consumer behaviours. The undertaking of a cross‐cultural comparative study can be seen as an important step in this field of research.     

Eating Sustainably? Practices and Background Factors of Ecological Food Consumption in Four Nordic Countries

This article examines sustainable food consumption in the Nordic context, studying to what extent people in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden have food consumption patterns that are in the current discourse promoted as sustainability enhancing. The article analyses the association of sustainable food consumption to attitudinal support for environmental policy measures, interest in cooking, and healthy eating practices as well as sociodemographic background factors. The comparison of four countries enables an analysis of the importance of the national context in sustainable food consumption. The study is based on data from a 2012 Nordic Web survey (N?=?8248). The results show that carrying out sustainable activities was not very widespread. Buying local food was the most popular, eating meat less often the most unpopular sustainable activity. The level of participation in sustainable practices varied across the four countries. Swedish respondents were the overall most active, Norwegians the least. However, results from analysis of variance (anova) indicated that the individual explanatory factors of sustainable food consumption were relatively similar in the four countries. Healthy eating patterns, interest in cooking, and supporting environmental policy measures were all positively correlated to sustainable food consumption. Women and the elderly were more active in sustainable practices than were men and the young. Education and occupational position played a role, too, but their effect was not totally systematic across countries. The findings suggest that sustainable food consumption is not a strongly socially stratified phenomenon, but it is related to other practices of eating regarded as “proper,” such as interest in cooking and healthy eating. Broader and more inclusive policies are needed to better engage people in sustainable activities.     

School lunch—Children’s space or teachers’ governmentality?

This article discusses social aspects of school lunches in Norway. How do 11‐year‐old students experience and perceive their packed lunches and lunch breaks and to what extent is the lunch break a space for children's sociality or an area for teachers’ governmentality? The study is based on 25 focus group discussions and drawing and writing assignments with 165 participants. A large proportion of the students expressed that they appreciated their packed lunches because they could decide for themselves what and how much to eat. Additionally, shortage of time and disturbance and noise in the classroom could ruin a good meal. The main issue that the students raised in relation to our question of sociality was with whom they could sit and eat their packed lunches. This finding underlines the importance of considering the emotional dimensions of eating and that commensal eating is not dependent on sharing the same food. The children experienced that the lunch break was governed by an adult agenda in which they had limited opportunities to create their own spaces.     

The retailing environment in Ireland and its effect on the chilled ready meal market

Food retailing in the island of Ireland has experienced a number of changes with the relatively recent arrival of the UK multiples. This preliminary study examined retailing developments in Ireland focusing on the chilled ready meal sector and on an identification of the factors that influence chilled food choice. Interviews, supermarket analysis, consumer focus groups and questionnaires revealed that the chilled ready meal market was experiencing a period of growth assisted by the arrival of the UK multiples, but there was great potential to further expand the market. Convenience was cited as the primary reason for purchase of chilled ready meals but taste continued to play an important role in chilled food choice. Retailers must respond by informing and educating consumers about their product offerings. In addition, they must listen to the unique needs and wants of consumers on this island to assist in the development and provision of a range of chilled ready meals suitable for the Irish market‐place.     

The family meal as an ideal: Children’s perceptions of foodwork and commensality in everyday life and feasts

The present article concerns meals from the point of view of children, focusing on structural and sociocultural aspects of meals in a Western context in general, and Sweden in particular. The aim was to study children's perceptions of meals with regard to what, where and with whom meals are eaten and how meals are made. The method used was an internet‐based, ethnological questionnaire, which is a qualitative method in which participants share their experiences and values regarding a certain topic of interest in writing. A hundred and twelve Swedish children were included. The children almost exclusively chose to write about family meals. These meals were described as well‐structured and organized, and were often portrayed in an idealized way, with family members sharing proper meals at home, spending an enjoyable time together with a nice atmosphere and good conversation. The children made a distinction between everyday meals and festive meals, where the main differences were that festive meals were more prone to include extended family and friends besides the nuclear family, and were described in a more exceptional way with regard to what is served and mealtime conditions. The article concludes that the family meal functioned as a way to construct the family and as a site where children acquire norms and values about meals and family identity, but they did so in an active way, by breaking rules and by challenging norms, thereby also contributing to change. The changing nature of the family meal was also seen in an extended proper meal and the commensal aspects surrounding mealtime, as commensality included both commensal eating and commensal foodwork.     

Advantages and disadvantages associated with the increased use of microwave energy in food preparation

This paper reviews some of the advantages and disadvantages associated with the increased use of microwave energy which have been revealed in recent investigations. In the U.K., there have been many changes in household structure and in eating patterns. Lifestyles have changed as a result of the complex interaction between social, nutritional and technical developments. There are now many new products and a different mode of cooking and eating is used in which convenience is an important feature. Comparisons between households with and without microwave cookers showed a fundamental difference between time and energy used in food preparation and also between the part played by different family members in meal production. The changing roles within households and the nature of family-eating patterns were evident. Experiments were carried out to quantify some of the observed differences between food cooked by conventional methods and by using microwave energy. The microwave cooker was found to be an important domestic cooking appliance with potential for improving energy efficiency during cooking and providing convenience and increased leisure time but it must be realised that there are problems relating to product design and safety.     

Consumer satisfaction with real life meal experiences: An interview study

The objective was to explore consumers’ expectations and experiences with buffet lunches at workplaces, using the disconfirmation paradigm. Consumers (N = 25) were interviewed before and after eating a buffet lunch. Interviews were transcribed and content analyzed. The results demonstrate that consumers perceive meal satisfaction as a holistic experience integrating sensory and quality experiences of the food, physiological consequences of eating, and social and environmental aspects of the meal. Consumer meal satisfaction was linked to achievement of short- and long-term goals on maintaining or improving physical and mental well-being. Alignment of meal-related goals and behavior promotes meal satisfaction.     

Coping with multiple identities related to meat consumption

Global meat consumption poses a threat to environmental sustainability and human health. Therefore, moral and health‐related norms connected to eating meat are changing and consumers experience conflicts when choosing between meat and nonmeat options in various situations. To achieve a better understanding of the nature of these conflicts and how consumers cope with them, we study identities related to meat consumption and how they are organized. Identity theories are used as the lens to address the self‐relevance of meat to consumers. Thirteen Danish consumers shared how and why they ate, reduced, or avoided meat in a food‐based photo‐diary and in‐depth interviews, supported by a visualization approach, developed from self‐brand connection methods. Three higher‐order identities (pragmatic idealist, ethical foodie, and healthy hedonist) emerged, governing the consumption, reduction, or avoidance of different meat categories. Identity conflicts between health, moral (e.g., animal welfare), and hedonic concerns were present, but also identity stigma. Coping mechanisms include change of salience and changing patterns of meat consumption. Campaigners promoting a reduction in meat consumption and developers of alternative protein foods can use these insights to target identities and facilitate conflict resolutions. However, more research is needed on how generalizable results are.     

Consumers’ perception of reduced calorie meals: How low is “Low-Calorie”?

ABSTRACT

With consumers becoming increasingly health conscious, the demand for reduced calorie food has significantly increased over the years. However, the definition of low-calorie food remains unclear. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate consumers’ perception of reduced calorie meals, from the perspective of the maximum calorie level that consumers would consider as “low-calorie.” Survey data were collected using MTurk. In addition to respondents’ perception of the calorie count of low-calorie food when eating out and eating at home, respondents’ attitude toward low-calorie food, behaviors about consuming low-calorie food and exercise frequency, and demographic information were also assessed in the survey. The results demonstrate that consumers’ calorie perception of low-calorie food served in restaurants is consistent among different types of restaurants. Moreover, consumers believe that a low-calorie meal served in restaurants should be under 367 calories for breakfast, 500 calories for lunch, and 677 calories for dinner. Lastly, consumers perceive home-cooked meals to be lower in calories than restaurant food. This study is the first attempt to explore consumers’ definition of a low-calorie meal served in restaurants. The findings will provide guidance to restaurant operators in designing menus, and help policymakers better understand the ongoing need to develop a sound and comprehensive definition for the term “low-calorie.”     

Eating fast food: attitudes of high‐school students

Alarmingly consistent recent research shows that industrially produced foods such as fast food contain compounds that add to obesity and high cholesterol among young people. Less physical activity and a higher propensity to eat ready‐made food (in Sweden and internationally) have aggravated the health situation for the young generation. They also have become ‘addicted’ to sugar by the consumption of lemonade and other sweet drinks that are often served in conjunction with fast food. Food consumption patterns are highly cultural, and, once formed in early years, they become difficult to change. The findings of this study, which was based on a small sample of written accounts and transcribed interviews, indicate that high‐school students in Sweden are well aware of the good and bad attributes of fast food, such as: speed, convenience, fat and sugar. Clear differences in attitude were found between male and female students: female students view fast food in a broad food chain context, whereas male students concentrate on fast eating and satiety.     

The influence of age and gender on food choice: a focus group exploration

With 25% of the UK population predicted to be obese by 2010, the costs to individuals and society are set to rise. Due to the extra economic and social pressures obesity causes, there is an increasing need to understand what motivates and prevents consumers from eating a healthy diet so as to be able to tailor policy interventions to specific groups in society. In so doing, it is important to explore potential variations in attitudes, motivation and behaviour as a function of age and gender. Both demographic factors are easily distinguished within society and a future intervention study which targets either, or both, of these would likely be both feasible and cost‐effective for policy makers. As part of a preliminary study, six focus groups (total n = 43) were conducted at the University of Reading in November 2006, with groups segmented on the basis of age and gender. In order to gather more sensitive information, participants were also asked to fill out a short anonymous questionnaire before each focus group began, relating to healthy eating, alcohol consumption and body dissatisfaction. Making use of thematic content analysis, results suggested that most participants were aware of the type of foods that contribute to a healthy diet and the importance of achieving a healthy balance within a diet. However, they believed that healthy eating messages were often conflicting, and were uncertain about where to find information on the topic. Participants believed that the family has an important role in educating children about eating habits. Despite these similarities, there were a number of key differences among the groups in terms of their reasons for making food choices. Older participants (60+ years old) were more likely to make food choices based on health considerations. Participants between the ages of 18–30 were less concerned with this link, and instead focused on issues of food preparation and knowledge, prices and time. Younger female participants said they had more energy when they ate healthier diets; however, very often their food choices related to concern with their appearance. Older female participants also expressed this concern within the questionnaire, rather than in the group discussions. Overall, these results suggest that consumer motivations for healthy eating are diverse and that this must be considered by government, retailers and food producers.     

Eating out,nutrition, education and the consumer: a case study from Alabama

Increasingly, there is agreement that the hospitality industry, particularly the restaurant sector, can significantly impact people's eating behaviour. This impact includes the nutritional intake of meals many restaurants sell that may lead to problems such as the growing obesity epidemic. This preliminary study investigates consumers' attitudes towards their eating out experience as it relates to their reasons for eating out and the importance that nutrition may place in their experience when eating out. Findings suggest differences in consumer attitudes towards these issues based on their gender, educational achievement level and type of restaurant they frequent. Nutritional awareness and education strategies do not appear to be reaching groups that are more exposed and/or more prone to unhealthier food consumption. Overall, consumers do not seem interested in education or involvement in healthier consumption.     

Changing the influence of portion size on consumer behavior via imagined consumption

A portion of food is usually considered as the norm for consumption. Due to the portion size effect, people tend to eat more when they are served a larger, as opposed to a smaller, portion. Here, spontaneous simulations of the experience of eating a portion of food by consumers (i.e., simulated eating) helped to reduce this portion size effect. Those participants who reported more eating simulations selected a smaller percentage of food from the very large portion. However, the quantity of food selected from this very large portion was nevertheless still larger than from the medium portion. Thus, simulated eating reduced but did not eliminate entirely the portion size effect. However, when the participants were encouraged to deliberatively imagine the sensory experiences associated with eating a portion of food (imagined eating), initial portion size no longer influenced the amount of food selected. Potential implications of these results for the consumer, for the food industry, and for public health are discussed.     

Healthy eating habit: A role for goals,identity, and self‐control?

Supporting healthier eating habits is crucial for improving population health outcomes. Underpinning everyday eating patterns are recurring actions that may lead to positive or negative health outcomes depending on the healthfulness of such actions. The aim of this research was to explore individual‐level determinants of a healthy eating habit and consider to what extent personal goals and self‐control are linked to a healthy eating habit. One thousand one hundred nine adults completed a survey focusing on a range of factors that potentially sway food choice behaviors. A structural model, developed based on a review of existing literature, was tested using self‐reported healthy eating habit (Verplanken & Orbell, 2003 ) as the dependent variable. Analysis suggests that along with health‐conscious identity and food hedonism, self‐control was one of the strongest determinants of a healthy eating habit. Furthermore, while healthy eating goals had a direct significant effect, other goals, economizing and emotional, did not. However, all three goals along with food hedonism had a significant indirect effect that was mediated through self‐control. In revealing the role of self‐control, this work questions the underlying assumption of automaticity in a healthy eating habit. This leads to the questions: what is a healthy eating habit and to what extent can healthy eating behaviors ever be truly characterized as controlled by heuristics and automaticity? This analysis suggests that healthy eating is an ongoing behavioral project that requires the continued engagement of deliberative processes; thus habit within this context, and as measured using self‐reported habit, may be a misnomer. The use of healthy eating routines, as opposed to habits, may be more appropriate to acknowledge the role of both automatic and deliberative processes with self‐control being central in everyday decision making. Important practical and theoretical implications are discussed along with potential approaches for health and food sectors to support healthier eating behavior in the future.     

The habit of eating rice in four countries: Japan,China, Spain and France

To determine differences in rice-eating habits in Japan, China (Shandong), Spain (Catalonia) and France (Alsace), the frequency of eating rice, the volume eaten per meal and the varieties of rice dishes were compared. A total of 486 housewives were surveyed: 125 Japanese, 99 Chinese, 141 Spanish and 121 French. Rice was eaten, on average, 12·1 and 8·2 times a week in Japan and China respectively, but only 0·9 times a week in Spain and France. In Japan, China and Spain, more than 50 g (raw rice) per meal was normally eaten. French subjects ate almost the same amount in only 30% of the total time for eating. In all four countries, rice cooked at home was predominant. In Japan, plain rice was an everyday dish, whereas ‘sushi’ was eaten only once every 2 weeks. Chinese everyday rice dishes were plain rice and rice porridge. In Spain, ‘paella’ and ‘boiled rice with tomato sauce’ were popular. Rice was used both as a main ingredient and as a supplementary ingredient in Spain. In France, boiled rice and ‘Creole-style rice’ were eaten as a supplement to main dishes. In these two countries, most rice dishes were seasoned with salt and flavoured with butter or olive oil. Interesting differences in the manner of eating rice and the culinary characteristics of each country are described in this study.