Dimensional analysis of schoolchildren's food label comprehension: a pilot study

This article discusses some weaknesses in current research into young consumers’ abilities to comprehend and successfully manipulate food label information and describes the development of a research project through to an analysis of the pilot phase. The research programme identifies a method of measuring the effectiveness of state education in enabling the next generation of consumers to make informed food choices through the provision of appropriate tools and skills, both of which are necessary to fully understand a label's informational elements within a marketing context. The article also discusses the appropriateness of a quantitative questionnaire to measure the abilities and skills of individuals through the identification of some key comprehension dimensions required by modern food consumers. Finally, the article questions the appropriateness of the context in which information is provided to food consumers. Through a continuing programme of research, it is envisaged that a more appropriate context for certain elements important in the choice of a diet that is relevant to an individual's lifestyle may be proposed.     

Are nutrition labels useful for the purchase of a familiar food? Evidence from Chinese consumers�� purchase of rice

Nutrition labeling has been accepted by Chinese consumers as an information source to learn about food quality and safety. This paper uses Chinese consumers’ rice purchase as an example to study how consumers use food nutrition labels to make purchase decision of a familiar food product. The goal is to understand how consumers seek information from the labels to make purchase when extensive experience with the food has been developed. Survey data from 400 random respondents in Beijing were analyzed using an empirical framework and a Mont Carlo integral econometrics model. We find that more than 50% of the consumers in Beijing have heard of food nutrition labels in general, 36.50% carefully use label information even if they are familiar with the food, and nearly 70% consider mandatory food nutrition labels as beneficial. Those who are more knowledgeable about rice nutrition labels are more likely to use the labels when purchasing rice, no matter how familiar they are with the product. Frequent users of nutrition labels are more likely to consider food mandatory nutrition labels as beneficial. This study suggests that consumers still use the label information to reassure the quality and safety of food despite a history of consumption.     

Consumer responses to private nutrition signals

Mandatory labelling of nutrition information with a numerical nutrition facts panel is commonly required for prepackaged food products. Recently, food manufacturers and retailers have developed simplified nutrition signals such as front-of-package labelling (e.g. the Traffic Light label) or retail shelf labels (e.g. Guiding Stars), which provide a more intuitive signal of nutritional content. Using survey data from a sample of consumers from western Canada, this paper examines consumer responses to two private nutrition labelling programs: Guiding Stars and the Traffic Light label. Consumers are more receptive to the Traffic Light label than the Guiding Stars. Ordered probit models explore the factors influencing the likelihood of using these nutrition signals. Trust in the food label, perceived difficulty of using nutrition information, nutrition knowledge, and the importance placed on nutrition influence receptively to these labels. Simplified nutrition labels are likely to complement, rather than substitute for, the existing Nutrition Facts Table.     

Ease of reading of mandatory information on Canadian food product labels

Food product labels present individual product information, safety, nutrition, electronic inventory, container and environmental information, in various formats, languages and images. Some information is mandatory; much is promotional. The food label is an essential tool for regulators of safe food handling, nutrition policy and fair competition. Mandatory information on food labels in Canada is required to be presented in both English and French, readily discernable, prominently displayed and legible. This study examines the ease of finding and reading of mandatory label components on selected Canadian food products. A validated typographical scoring system assessed the lists of ingredients on a purposive sample of 100 food labels representing foods in all groups in Canada's Food Guide. Seven percent of the ingredient lists were easy to read; 26% were difficult to read and 67% were very difficult to read. Well‐educated resourceful readers in consumer focus groups examined food labels for key elements that influence ease of finding and reading information. Focus groups and typographical scoring identified: colour contrast, case, print style, print size, space between the lines, reverse print, organization, justification, type of surface, hyphenation and print reproduction as factors that affect ease of reading. Print that curves around a container, lack of paragraphing or point form organization make reading difficult; text blocks at right angles to each other make comparisons difficult; separation of the nutrition facts table from the list of ingredients makes decision making tedious. Inadequate spacing between lines of print creates problems for readers of English and exacerbates problems for readers of French. Words placed over illustrations, busy backgrounds or watermarks increase reading difficulty. Hazard statements, instructions and storage information imbedded in other information without added space or appropriate heading is difficult to find and read. Canadian consumers echo consumers in 28 European countries who find label information difficult to find and to read and want clear guidelines/regulations on the placement and the typography of mandatory food label components     

Usage and understanding of food labels among Lebanese shoppers

Food labelling is a population‐based approach to health education that enables consumers to make better choices by providing information at the point of purchase. This study aimed to assess the food label usage and understanding and factors affecting them among Lebanese supermarket shoppers. A cross‐sectional study was conducted among 748 supermarket shoppers in Lebanon between December 2013 and February 2014 using a pre‐coded structured questionnaire. About 29.3 of the shoppers check the food labels every time they buy a food product and 15.7% never do it. Shoppers who do not read food labels identified the long time needed in reading them as top reason (34.9%), while 9.8% answered that they do not understand them. About 55.4%of the surveyed shoppers read the food labels at the supermarkets. About 44.4% of participants agreed that reading food labels is very important, while 30.3% read the food labels depending on the purchased product. Then 19.4% of participants complained that food labels contain too much information and 13.8% claimed that food labels are difficult to understand. About 60.3% think that food labels have helped people in changing their eating habits, while health and nutrition claims affected the product selection among 59.8% of participants. The food label knowledge score average was 63.1%. Older, obese shoppers having kids, suffering from chronic illness or allergies, following a specific diet and residing in big cities scored significantly (p < .05) higher. The low knowledge score necessitates the nutrition education on how to read and use the food labels. Groceries would be the perfect place to reach out mass consumers.     

An exploration of the influence of food labels on South African consumers' purchasing behaviour

New labelling legislation in South Africa is expected to help consumers sustain a healthy lifestyle through the food choices they make. This study was undertaken to explore a sample of South African consumers' reasons for reading labels and the influence of food labels on their purchasing behaviour. The study was conducted using focus group discussions held with label reading consumers in Potchefstroom in the North West Province of South Africa. Findings suggested that these participants read food labels to assess the nutritional value, personal benefits, health attributes and product quality. Various purchasing influences were also identified, suggesting that consumers are in some cases motivated by food labels to purchase a product, or may be unresponsive to the label or indifferent by being aware of the information but not reluctant to buy a product that does not indicate essential information. Several indirect consideration factors such as situational factors (e.g. family), extrinsic (e.g. price) and intrinsic (e.g. taste) may contribute to the purchasing behaviour of some consumers. These findings are useful to propose a perceptual model of the way in which food labels influence purchasing behaviour of a sample of South African consumers and explain the role of food labels in the purchasing decision of label‐reading consumers. This information is especially significant for new packaging and labelling initiatives as it highlights the reasons why label‐reading South African consumers read label information.     

A conceptual framework for analyzing consumers' food label preferences: An exploratory study of sustainability labels in France,Quebec, Spain and the US

In a qualitative study of 375 consumers in France, Quebec, Spain and the US, respondents are asked to choose between pairs of actual food labels and to describe the reason(s) for their choice. The food labels included sustainability labels (eco‐labels, Fair Trade, origin) as well as product attribute (e.g. quality, kosher) and health/nutrition labels. Respondents' reasons were coded in the original language using the same coding system across all four nations to examine their preferences for label message, design and source. We also examined the role of consumers' values, beliefs and experiences on their label choices. The coding system was drawn from a review of theoretical and empirical literature and provides a conceptual framework we call the Label Consumer Interaction model for evaluating consumers' food label preferences. Although this is case study, the results point to substantial differences across nations in terms of preferred labels, as well as the rationale for their choice in terms of attributes of the labels and consumer characteristics.     

Exploring antecedents of healthy food choices: an Indian experience

Label information on food items is seen as a tool to facilitate better choices. Merely, provision of label information may not lead to the desired outcome. Comprehension and processing of label information during consumer decision making is crucial for better food choices. Based on the primary data obtained from 150 consumers of pre‐packaged food items, the research proposes a conceptual model for healthier food choices. Previously, a number studies related to consumer decision making have employed ‘label reading’ and ‘label use’ interchangeably. Present research advocates that label reading does not amount to label use. Findings from ordered probit model and path analysis suggest that comprehension of label information leads to increase in its perceived usefulness. Further, increased perceived usefulness facilitates better food choice. Instances of better food choices can be maximized by enhancing perceived usefulness and comprehension of label information through educational and awareness campaigns, especially in context of developing countries such as India.     

Consumers' perceptions of individual and combined sustainable food labels: a UK pilot investigation

Consumers are faced with an increasing number of sustainable food labels. These different labels may be complementary or add to the increasing competition of product information in consumers' minds. We investigate: (1) the perceptions that consumers in the UK have about sustainable labels vs. other labels, such as origin or nutrition labels; and (2) consumers' reactions to combinations of different sustainable labels. Overall, the findings from two focus groups conducted in the UK indicate that consumers have positive perceptions of organic and fair trade labels but tend to be sceptical about unfamiliar labels and general claims such as ‘climate friendly’. The results also indicate the importance of familiarity, trust and fit between combinations of labels as well as between associating a label with a brand. While the combination of certain labels can enhance the value of a food product, this study also indicates that other label combinations (e.g. private and sustainable label) can detract from a label's value. Implications and recommendations are suggested for managers to counter the image of greenwashing, and for policy makers to facilitate sustainable food choices.     

The Effects of Nutrition Label Comparison Baselines on Consumers' Food Choices

Recent legislative changes in the European Union have mandated nutrition labeling for the majority of pre‐packaged foods. This research compared effects of several nutrition labeling formats on consumers' food choices (i.e., the nutrition table, GDA 100 g/ml, and GDA portion). We primarily focused on whether nutrition label information was standardized to a fixed or varying comparison baseline. Fixed baselines (e.g., 100 g/ml) allow consumers to make direct, relative comparisons of products, while varying baselines (e.g., portion size) often require consumers to undertake complex mathematical calculations. Findings suggest that consumers' food choices are likely to be healthier when nutrition label information is presented on a fixed baseline. Gender was found to moderate these effects such that women made healthier choices—but only when the nutrition label baseline was fixed. Thus, the type of comparison baseline is an important characteristic of nutrition labels for public policymakers, public health officials, and academic researchers to consider.     

Use and knowledge of food labels of shoppers in a city with a high proportion of heart disease

This study aimed to assess consumers’ use and understanding of food labelling and the improvements that they would like. Systematically selected supermarket shoppers were interviewed using a questionnaire. Data showed that the use of food labels was low. Among those who read food labels, at least occasionally, use‐by‐date was the most reported information looked at. Understanding of the content of five nutrients on a standard food label provided was poor. Although a high proportion of participants claimed to have no problem with the current format, those who had problems wanted food labels that were ‘bigger’, ‘highlighted’ or written in ‘plain English’. These results suggest that before improved food labels can have an impact on consumers’ food choice, strategies to encourage shoppers to read them are needed.     

Meat labels: consumer attitude and meat consumption pattern

This paper addressed consumers’ attitude towards food labels and the influence of different aspects of meat labels on beef, poultry and seafood consumption using data from a national survey in the USA. Approximately 70% of the respondents reported that food labels helped in the purchases of beef and other meat products. While 50% thought that the present level of information on meat labels was about right, about 30% thought that it was insufficient. Similarly, 80, 81, 60, and 80% of the respondents thought that it was very important that meat labels contain information regarding nutrition, ingredients, health claim, and production process respectively. Those respondents who thought that nutrition and ingredient information on food labels were very important also thought that meat labels helped them select beef and other meat products. Consumer preferences for nutrition and ingredient information on food labels were positively related with meat consumption frequency.     

Price rather than nutrition information the main influencer of consumer food purchasing behaviour in South Africa: A qualitative study

In South Africa there has been a paucity of data on food and nutrition labelling since the publication of the new food‐labelling legislation. This study aimed to explore whether the nutrition information on food products influences consumer purchasing behaviour; reasons for reading or ignoring nutrition information on labels, and to investigate expectations regarding food / nutrition labelling. Nine focus‐group discussions were held with adult consumers (N=67) in Cape Town, South Africa. Food price was sometimes the only consideration when selecting food products, irrespective of quality and nutritional value. When buying products for the first time, consumers were more inclined to read the nutrition information compared to habitual purchases or buying known brands. The list of ingredients, nutrient content claims and specific health endorsement logos were considered important. Reasons for reading nutrition information were mainly to assess the nutritional value or health properties, to avoid certain ingredients/allergens and to determine quality. Consumers struggled to understand the information on labels, specifically the nutrition information table. A lack of time or interest, price concerns and trust in labelling information also emerged as reasons why consumers ignore the nutrition information. There is a need for simpler food labelling, more graphics, and less complex terminology, information overload and quantitative information. It is recommended that a standardised front‐of‐package labelling scheme and a single health endorsement logo for South Africa be considered. More should be done to educate consumers on utilising the information on food labels correctly, in order for them to make healthier food choices.     

Estimating the effects of nutrition label use on Canadian consumer diet‐health concerns using propensity score matching

The overarching goal of nutrition labelling is to transform intrinsic credence attributes into searchable cues, which would enable consumers to make informed food choices at lower search costs. This study estimates the impact of nutrition label usage on Canadian consumers’ (n = 8,114) perceived diet‐health concerns using alternative propensity score matching (PSM) techniques. We apply a series of tests and sensitivity analyses to overcome issues of endogeneity and selection bias frequently found in studies of diet‐health behaviour and to validate the impact of exposure to nutrition facts labels for users vs. non‐users. Our results support the notion that consumer uncertainty and related food‐health concerns are linked to their information behaviour, but not in straightforward manner. Dominant subjective food attributes, such as taste, convenience and affordability, may in fact outweigh the benefits of information about healthier, alternative food choices. In order to change dietary health behaviour, food manufacturer and policy makers alike need to adopt communication instruments that better account for differences in preferences, shopping habits and overall usage patterns of nutrition labelling information.     

Facts-up-front: should food companies follow the FDA or industry label format? The effects of combining virtue and vice information on consumer evaluations

This research examines consumers’ processing of Facts-up-front food labels as implemented by the Grocery Manufacturers Association (GMA). Facts-up-front labels include both positive (virtues) and negative (vices) nutritional icons. The processing and relative efficacy of Facts-up-front labels are compared to the original FDA proposal of front-of-pack labels which only included vices. The results suggest heuristic processing of these labels, whereby consumers consider the nutritional icons on the front-of-pack labels similar to affective stimuli. The addition of virtues alongside vices on the label has a compensatory effect, i.e., the food item is evaluated as healthier when there are both virtues and vices on the label compared to when there are only vices. Such heuristic processing of Facts-up-front labels that allows nutritional virtues to compensate for nutritional vices has the potential for consumers evaluating harmful foods as relatively “healthy” thus compromising consumer well-being. These findings illustrate the importance of empirically testing changes to nutritional labels before large scale implementation. Since consumers process front-of-pack labels heuristically and not cognitively, it is not surprising that nutritional literacy does not moderate the effects of label design on healthiness evaluations. Furthermore, the order of the negative and positive information on Facts-up-front labels also has no effect.

     

Consumers’ Opinions and Use of Food Labels,Nutrition, and Health Claims: Results from Turkey

This study was conducted to reveal Turkish consumers’ (18–65 years residing 10 cities, n = 1200) opinions and use of food labels, nutrition, and health claims. The majority of both females and males (64.7%, 68.2%) seldom read food labels. Risk for not paying attention to food labels was increased 1.287-fold when the gender was male. The percentage of reading food labels increases as education and income levels of individuals increase (p < 0.05). Expiry dates of foods were the most frequent read item on labels (58.0%). Males mostly read information on label to learn the price of the food (71.0%) while females read it to learn the energy value of food (79.0%). Females had more knowledge on nutrition claims compared to males (p < 0.05). The nutrition claims, which were most frequently read by females and males, were trans fat free (23.5%, 21.0%) and low fat/fat free (23.3%, 20.5%). The claim organic was paid most attention on fruit and vegetables (52.0%). The claim “low cholesterol contributes to maintenance of cardiovascular-health” was the most common health claim read. In summary, Turkish consumer’s behaviour of reading labels and nutrition-health claims could change according to some sociodemographic factors and food products.     

Effects on Nutrition Label Regulation on Consumer Choice

The U.S. government initiated food labeling reform in 1989, which culminated with the Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (NLEA) of 1990, emphasizing the provision of improved nutrition information on most food products. The goal of such labeling reform has been to provide consistent, readable, understandable and usable food labels that enable consumers to make more healthful food choices. This paper examines the theoretical impact of the new regulations on consumer food choice behavior. The paper first discusses the use and impact of food labels by/on consumers, and uses a choice model to desribe the effects of these new labels on consumer food choice decisions. In particular, the research focuses on two important food attributes, and the presence of information of these attributes through the new nutrition labels, which may influence consumer purchase behavior.