Exciting on Facebook or competent in the newspaper? Media effects on consumers’ perceptions of brands in the fashion category

Abstract

Media investments are continuously shifting from traditional media like newspapers to digital alternatives like websites and social media. This study investigated if and how media choice between the two rival channels can influence consumers’ perceptions of a novel brand. 504 Swedish retail fashion customers participated in an experiment to evaluate the identical advertisement placed either in a national newspaper or on Facebook. The results revealed that advertising in a newspaper can have a positive effect on brand equity facets and purchase intention through brand personality perceptions of being competent, while advertising on Facebook have similar effects but through perceptions of being exciting. Besides some evidence that choice between traditional and new media affects brand personality this study is one of the first attempts to incorporate media channel choice into the broader customer-based brand equity framework. The results from this particular study suggest that media channel choice should be considered from a brand equity building perspective at least in the fashion category. This study shows that different media channels could complement each other strategically, as traditional media channels still can have valuable and unique contributions to brand building through brand personality perceptions, especially for brands striving to be perceived as competent.     

Consumers' Responses to Implicit and Explicit Gay-Themed Advertising in Gay vs. Mainstream Media

ABSTRACT

Further study is needed to validate concerns over gay-themed ads appearing in mainstream media. This study investigates the effects of such ads by comparing them to the effects of gay-themed ads placed in gay media. The study delves into the differential effects of implicit and explicit visual messages. It also examines how consumers' attitudes toward homosexuality affect their purchase intention as well as advertising and brand evaluation. The study's findings suggest that implicit, rather than explicit, gay-themed ads lead to higher purchase intention and more favorable advertising and brand evaluation. The study results show that the type of advertising message (i.e., implicit or explicit gay-themed ads) moderates the relationship between gay-media and mainstream media. Finally, this study finds that a low level of tolerance toward homosexuality results in lower purchase intention as well as less favorable evaluations of both the advertising and brand. Managerial implications are also discussed.     

Celebrity endorsement: How celebrity–brand–user personality congruence affects brand attitude and purchase intention

The present study provides and tests a conceptual framework aimed at comparing the relative effectiveness of celebrity–user, brand–celebrity, and user–brand personality congruence on brand attitude and brand purchase intention (BPI) thereafter. The data collection was done via an online survey of a representative group of consumers (n = 431) located across India. Hypotheses were tested using regression analysis with mediation approach. The results indicate that while user–brand and brand–celebrity personality congruence have a significant impact on brand attitude and purchase intention, celebrity–user congruence does not. Further, brand attitude is found to be a partial mediator on the relationship between the pair-wise personality congruence on BPI. The findings have major implications for marketers in understanding the significance of personality congruence among celebrity–brand–user in the formation of brand attitude and purchase intention that can be used in positioning and in increasing the advertising effectiveness of brands using celebrity endorsement. The present study is a pioneer in contributing to the celebrity endorsement literature by investigating the relative impact of three pairs of personality congruence: celebrity–brand, brand–user, and celebrity–user, on brand attitude and BPI, thereby supporting the applicability of McCracken's Meaning Transfer Model [McCracken (1989), The Journal of Consumer Research, 16 (3) 310–321) and the Hierarchy-of-effects model (Lavidge and Steiner (1961), Journal of Marketing, 25 (6) 59–62].     

Why we watch others' responses to online advertising – investigating users' motivations for viewing user-generated content in the context of online advertising

The study investigates Internet users' motivations for viewing user-generated content (UGC) in the context of online advertising. In addition, it is examined whether individual motivation patterns can be traced back to users' personalities and their attitudes toward advertising in general. An online survey of 181 social media users was conducted, surveying users' motivation, personality (big five), and attitude toward advertising in general. Path analysis was employed to examine the research model. The use of UGC was motivated by needs for information, entertainment, personal identity, and social interaction. While personality did not predict users' motives, their attitudes towards advertising in general explained individual motivation patterns to a large extent. It was consequently proposed and confirmed that users' motives mediate the influence of recipients' general attitude toward advertising on UGC usage. Results indicated a strong effective potential for UGC in online advertising: users view such content expressly to be influenced by others fulfilling their needs for information, personal identity and social interaction. Firms may lose some of their ability to precisely control brand messages when advertising in social media.     

Creating Online Brand Personality: The Role of Personal Difference

This study explores the concept of online brand personality, creation of online brand personality, and the role of personal difference in terms of advertising effectiveness – memory and attitude. The primary research question is whether individual's matching personality to online brand creates different responses toward online brand in terms of advertising effectiveness, such as memory, attitude and behavior. The results found that: first, website structure is an important factor on subjects' attitude toward the website; second, individual's personality is an important moderator on the effects of website structure; and third, individual's personality and brand personality have a significant interaction effect on attitude and behavioral intention.     

Toward a Model to Enhance Synergy of Out-of-Home Advertising Media Integration Strategies

ABSTRACT

For media planners to combine multiple media across platforms to maximize synergy is a critical challenge within integrated marketing communication. For this study, in-depth interviews were conducted with experienced media specialists in leading agencies to explore how they integrate different out-of-home advertising media platforms in IMC strategies. The feedback of these experts was then used to propose a model of strategies to enhance synergy within out-of-home advertising campaigns. This model is a first of its kind for planning out-of-home advertising media across platforms and bridges a gap in the existing literature on media synergy and out-of-home advertising media strategy.     

The brand personality dimensions of business-to-business firms: a content analysis of employer reviews on social media

ABSTRACT

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to explore the brand personalities that employees are creating of their employer brands, in particular business-to-business (B-to-B) brands, when describing these brands on social media. We examine how the brand personalities, based on written online reviews, differ between high- and low-ranked, and high- and low-rated brands.

Methodology/Approach: 6,300 written employee reviews from a social media platform, Glassdoor, are used for content analysis in DICTION, to determine the brand personality dimensions they communicate (J. L). An independent B-to-B brand ranking data source, Brandwatch, is used as a reference to various brands’ level of ranking, while an ANOVA test is used to determine whether there is a difference in the brand personality trait means when comparing high and low-ranked, and high- and low-rated brands.

Findings: Our findings suggest that a strong social media presence does not equate to a strong employer brand personality perception among employees, since there are no significant differences between B-to-B firms based on their rankings.

Research Implications: Extant literature has mostly explored the impact of either critical reviews or favourable customer ratings and reviews on company performance, with very little research focusing on the B-to-B context. In addition, research employing DICTION for the purposes of content analysis of reviews is sparse. The methodology used in this study could thus be employed to further compare and contrast the reviews from a single company, dividing top and low starred reviews to compare discrepancies.

Practical Implications: The results of this study show how online shared employee experiences of employer brands contribute to the formation of a distinct employer brand personality. From a managerial viewpoint, engaging with current and past employees and being cognizant of the online narratives that they share on social media, may be an early indicator of where the firm is lacking (or showing strength) in its’ employee engagement. This would offer a way for firms to both understand their employer brand personality as well as gauge how they compare to top employers in a specific sector or industry.

Originality/Value/Contribution: The study attempts to grow the literature of employee brand engagement in a B-to-B context, by recognizing the important role that employees play in engaging with their employer brand online. Two main contributions are offered. The first contribution relates to the finding that employees perceive highly-rated B-to-B brands as being more competent, exciting, sincere and sophisticated than low-rated B-to-B brands. Second, the methodology used in this study proves to be a novel and accurate way of comparing employee reviews and perceived employer brand personality, with the employer-created intended brand image.     

The influence of self-construal and materialism on social media intensity: a study of China and the United States

This study investigated the potential influence of self-construal and materialism on intensity of usage for three social media platforms: social networking sites (SNSs), microblogging sites (MBSs), and video sharing sites (VSSs). Data were collected from China and the United States – two countries with the highest advertising expenditures and Internet populations. Drawing from the social comparison theory (SCT) and the framework of independent and interdependent self-construal, results of the hierarchical multiple regressions indicated that both independent and interdependent self-construal were positively related to SNS intensity among Chinese and American users. However, interdependent self-construal had a significant, negative relationship with the intensity of MBS use among users in the two countries. Materialism was found to positively relate to SNS intensity, MBS intensity, and VSS intensity among Chinese and American users. These results provide evidence that self-construal and materialism contribute to social media use independent of nationality. Theoretical and managerial implications for international advertising strategies are discussed.     

Are we who we follow? Computationally analyzing human personality and brand following on Twitter

Abstract

In this study, we present a computational method for analyzing the congruence between personality of a brand’s Twitter account and the personality of their followers. We investigated attachment to brands on Twitter by computing personalities through a machine-learned computational analysis of Twitter postings rather than traditional personality tests. By studying three different brands, results revealed that on average, brand followers have personalities that are more congruent with the personality of brands they follow compared to users that do not follow those brands. Taking these findings into consideration, we discuss some considerations for advertising researchers and practitioners, as well as provide a new tool, the Brand Analytics Environment (BAE), to allow individuals without computer programming backgrounds to conduct this method themselves.     

Media generations and their advertising attitudes and avoidance: a six-country comparison

This cross-national survey (N = 5784) examined generational differences in media use, advertising attitudes and avoidance for five media (websites, social media, mobile phones, television, newspapers) in six countries (Germany, Spain, United Kingdom, United States, France, and the Netherlands). The results showed that the net generation and the newspaper generation, but not the TV generation, were clearly distinct in the frequency of their media use in all six countries. For advertising attitudes, generational patterns were visible, however, neither for all media nor in all countries. When generational differences did occur, the net generation was on the positive end, whereas the newspaper generation was usually the most negative. For advertising avoidance, generational patterns were less present and consistent. The findings point out interesting directions for future research. Practical implications for advertisers and media planners are discussed.     

Leveraging consumer personality and social media marketing to improve a brand's social media equity

Consumer personality traits impact consumer actions, preferences, online behaviour and shopping motives. This study examines personality traits as drivers of social media equity by addressing the mechanisms under which consumer personality traits influence social media equity. We aim to combine consumer-level information with brand-level metrics to advance our understanding of consumers' associations with brands on social media and how specific consumer personality traits can be leveraged to improve a brand's social media equity. Using a self-administered survey, a total of 418 respondents from an online consumer panel participated in this study. The results from structural equation modelling revealed that while extraversion, openness to experience and neuroticism personality traits are positively associated with brand engagement and brand advocacy, agreeableness and conscientiousness are significantly associated with brand advocacy and not with brand engagement. This study advances theory by examining how consumer personality traits influence social media equity via brand engagement and brand advocacy as mediators. The findings provide rich practical insights into underlying mechanisms through which marketers can increase social media equity using consumer personality traits.     

Construct heterogeneity and proliferation in advertising research

Abstract

This paper presents results from a study of measurement practice in leading advertising journals. The focus is on heterogeneity in measurement operationalizations of the same construct and construct proliferation (i.e. when constructs have different names but overlapping content). These issues were addressed by analyzing the measurement operationalizations in all articles published in three leading advertising journals between 2012 and 2014. Results show considerable heterogeneity in the operationalizations of three common advertising constructs (ad credibility, ad irritation and perceived humour) for which almost every study used a unique operationalization. Results also show considerable construct proliferation as different names were used for the same constructs and there was overlap in the operationalizations of several advertising constructs. The paper offers a discussion of implications for advertising research and suggests steps that can be taken towards improving measurement practice.     

Country reputation as a moderator of tourism advertising effectiveness

This study examines the role that country reputation plays in moderating the effects of tourism advertising for that country as well as attitude toward its government and citizens. A pre/post online study conducted in Australia used the current Brand USA's ‘Land of Dreams’ television commercial as the experimental stimulus. The country reputation scale was factor analyzed to reveal three underlying dimensions – Leadership, Investment, and Culture. Results indicated that Leadership moderated the effectiveness of the tourism ad for interest in travel to the USA as well as for attitude toward the US government.     

Private label personality: applying brand personality to private label brands

Private label brands (PLBs) are an important facet of the retail offering within the supermarket sector. Although research has focused on the risk factors of private label purchasing, there has been little research that explores the brand management of private labels including the development of a brand personality. In this study, we investigate how the Aaker brand personality scale applies to a PLB available in two different retail chains and examine its effect on customer attitudes towards private label quality. A factor analysis of these brand personality measurement items shows that five dimensions, confidence (a new dimension), sincerity, ruggedness, excitement and competence are relevant for PLBs. Although much of the original Aaker scale was included in the analysis, one factor, sophistication, was not evident. A regression analysis shows that all private label personality dimensions influenced the private label quality measure with the confidence and sincerity dimensions having the greatest impact.     

The Perceptions of Consumers Regarding Online Retailers’ Ethics and Their Relationship with Consumers’ General Internet Expertise and Word of Mouth: A Preliminary Analysis

Ethical concerns of Internet users continue to rise. Accordingly, several scholars have called for systematic empirical research to address these issues. This study examines the conceptualization and measurement of consumers’ perceptions regarding the ethics of online retailers (CPEOR). Also, this research represents a first step into the analysis of the relationship between CPEOR, consumers’ general Internet expertise and reported positive word of mouth (WOM). Results, from a convenience sample of 357 online shoppers, suggest that CPEOR can be operationalized as a second-order construct composed of four dimensions: security, privacy, fulfillment, and non-deception. Our findings also indicate that consumers’ general Internet expertise significantly improves CPEOR and CPEOR are strongly predictive of consumers’ WOM. Managerial and research implications are offered.     

Knowledge Flows Between Advertising and Other Disciplines: A Social Exchange Perspective

Knowledge flows between advertising and other academic disciplines are examined to identify the structure of scientific knowledge, the extent of social exchange and the scientific status of the field. Bibliometric analysis is used to identify who is citing our research and who we cited. Cocitation patterns for the leading advertising journals (Journal of Advertising [JA], Journal of Advertising Research [JAR], International Journal of Advertising [IJA], Journal of Interactive Advertising [JIA], and Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising [JCIRA]) and the top 50 citing and cited journals with citation relationships from 2005 to 2014 were examined. Findings revealed that advertising is citing advertising scholarship the most, followed by marketing, consumer research, psychology, and communication. This suggests a “maturing field” where scholars look within the discipline's body of knowledge. In turn, advertising research is cited by advertising, marketing, business (general), communication, and psychology. The overall citing-to-cited ratio suggests that advertising is more a “receiver” than “provider” of knowledge to other disciplines; however, there is variation across the advertising journals. The positioning of advertising journals in the larger disciplinary framework shows close relationships to consumer research and interactive communication. The most common focus among the top-cited articles is digital media, with few articles focusing on traditional advertising. The implications of our findings for the field of advertising are discussed.     

How advertising in offline media drives reach of and engagement with brands on Facebook

ABSTRACT

Research investigating the drivers of consumers’ engagement with brands on social media is proliferating. However, little is known about how advertising outside social media drives engagement with brands on social media. This study aims to explore the relation between advertising spend in different offline media (TV, radio, newspapers, magazines, out of home), and reach of and engagement with brand pages on Facebook. The study uses a unique real-life data-set containing information about the Facebook pages of 45 brands for approximately three years combined with Nielsen Advertising Spend data. Results showed that while advertising in offline media influenced organic and viral reach, the number of page likes was directly influenced by advertising on Facebook only. It can be concluded that offline advertising is relevant in driving consumers’ online brand engagement; however, there is a unique set of drivers for organic reach, viral reach and likes.     

Impact of Advertising Variability on Building Customer-Based Brand Personality in a Competitive Environment: Empirical Analysis with Reference to Mexico

ABSTRACT

Brand equity is built around brand personality as one of its core dimensions. The psychographic variables, such as emotions, associated with a brand's image constitute the brand's personality. Although consumers' experiences with the brand cultivate such a personality, advertising plays a dominant role in its creation. This paper attempts to explore the mechanism that builds brand personality through means of communication, such as advertising and word of mouth. The discussions in the paper integrate advertising variability concepts with brand personality and present viable propositions as managerial implications for building a brand's personality while taking the variables of marketing communication into consideration. The hypotheses set within the integrated framework lead to the construct of an advertising model that is cohesive to brand personality measures. In building this framework, analyses of the concepts of brand equity and advertising, communication, personality and loyalty have been critically examined and tested based on two separate studies conducted in Mexico.

RESUMEN. El valor de una marca se construye utilizando su propia personalidad como una de sus dimensiones intrínsecas. Las variables psicográficas, tales como las emociones asociadas a la imagen de la marca, son las que constituyen su personalidad. A pesar del hecho de que son justamente las experiencias que los clientes tienen con la marca las que crean dicha personalidad, la publicidad también desempeña un papel importante. Este documento trata de explorar el mecanismo utilizado para construir la personalidad de la marca a través de medios de comunicación tales como la publicidad, y los datos transmitidos verbalmente por las personas. Los argumentos utilizados en este documento integran los conceptos de la variabilidad publicitaria a la personalidad de la marca, y presentan propuestas viables como implicancias gerenciales para construir dicha personalidad al mismo tiempo que toman en consideración las variables del mercadeo comunicacional. La hipótesis trazada dentro del marco integrado nos llevó a construir un modelo publicitario coherente con las medidas de la personalidad de la marca. Al construir este marco, hemos analizado los conceptos inherentes al valor de la marca y su publicidad, comunicación, y lealtad críticamente, poniéndolos a prueba en dos estudios separados realizados en México.

RESUMO. O valor da marca-brand equity-é construído ao redor da personalidade da marca como uma de suas dimensões principais. As variáveis psicográficas, tais como emoções, associadas à imagem de uma marca constituem a personalidade da marca. Embora experiências dos consumidores com a marca cultivem tal personalidade, a propaganda desempenha papel dominante em sua criação. Este artigo busca explorar o mecanismo que constrói a personalidade da marca através dos meios de comunicação, tais como propaganda e boca a boca. As discussões apresentadas no artigo integram conceitos de variabilidade da propaganda com personalidade de marca e apresentam proposições viáveis de implicações gerenciais para a construção da personalidade de uma marca, ao mesmo tempo em que levam em consideração as variáveis da comunicação de marketing. As hipóteses levantadas no âmbito do arcabouço integrado levam à construção de um modelo de propaganda que é coerente com as mensurações de personalidade de marca. Construindo este arcabouço, análises dos conceitos de valor da marca-brand equity-e propaganda, comunicação, personalidade e lealdade, foram examinados criticamente, e testados baseados em dois estudos independentes conduzidos no México.     

Marketing Applications of Transactional Analysis: Some Empirical Support for Advertising

While considerable attention has been given in the literature to personality theory and its implications for advertising, to date, little progress has been recorded in effecting practice. This article focuses on a relatively new personality theory, transactional analysis (TA), and its potential for contributing to the solution of advertising problem situations. A pilot study was undertaken which yielded empirical evidence dealing with the application of TA to advertising media and message strategies.     

The Impacts of Consumer Personality Traits on Online Video Ads Sharing Intention

Abstract

Despite the increasing importance of advertisement sharing, research on the characteristics of people sharing advertisements with others is limited. This study examines the impacts of personality traits on online video advertising sharing intention (OVASI). The results show that extraversion, neuroticism, and openness to experience among big-five personality traits have positive impacts on OVASI. Particularly, the effect of extraversion on OVASI was positive and the largest among personality traits. Implications of the findings, as well as suggestions for further research, are discussed.