Are we keeping up? Accessibility,equity and air quality in regional planning

Many US metropolitan areas have undergone dramatic shifts in socioeconomic organization.. As urban areas gentrify, many low-income residents and communities of color have transitioned towards the exurban periphery. These suburban neighborhoods tend to have fewer employment opportunities and are fairly disconnected from public transportation networks serving the urban core. Using regional transportation plans (RTPs) for three California MPOs, we show that the transportation accessibility and environmental health issues affecting these exurban communities are unique and inadequately captured by the MPOs' current equity metrics. MPOs performance evaluation is regional and achieving equity within the urban core communities will not address emerging equity, accessibility and air quality concerns for exurban communities. With a brief history and a focused case study of RTPs for the San Francisco Bay Area, San Diego, and Fresno, we examine how air pollution, equity, and transportation interact in three different types of 21st century cities. We find that when allocating limited transportation funds, California metropolitan planning organizations (MPOs) prioritize the improvement of existing public transportation in urban core areas over expansion of transit networks towards disconnected exurbs. This approach is an effective way to reduce vehicle miles traveled (and thus, air pollution) at the regional level due to high population concentrations in urban cores. However, this approach also concentrates the air quality benefits of VMT reduction in these same urban core areas. Exurban residents' on-road and near-road exposure to Traffic-Related Air Pollution (TRAP) will not be reduced by improving public transit within the urban core. We argue that although these suburban and exurban communities are a small percentage of the regional population, they have a right to share in the benefits of transportation investments, particularly given the historical and ongoing patterns of displacement and economic exclusion from urban core areas.     

A GIS-based spatial statistical approach to modeling job accessibility by transportation mode: case study of Columbus,Ohio

Improving job accessibility based on transport connectivity helps to address equity issues. Spatial autocorrelation (SA) is also a focus of interest in transportation planning, but has been neglected in analyzing job accessibility in metropolitan areas. In this study, GIS-based job accessibilities by walking, transit, and car are computed for the metropolitan area of Columbus, Ohio, and three transport-based spatial autoregressive (SAR) models are estimated to account for the SA of job accessibility among neighboring block groups, while controlling for built-environment and socioeconomic factors. SA intensities and extents are compared in order to better understand local spatial clusters of job accessibility across the region. Direct and indirect spillover effects due to an investment change in transportation facilities are estimated and provide important transportation planning information. The results also show that walking-accessed jobs are primarily related to physical settings (e.g., land uses) at the local level. Locations with a higher share of zero-vehicle housing units have better job accessibility by transit. There is a spatial mismatch between Asian population clusters and transit-accessed jobs, possibly because of the car-oriented residential clusters around Honda of America Manufacturing in suburban areas. More importantly, locations with a higher share of single-parent households are at a disadvantage in overall job accessibility. Due to its complex transportation needs, a society friendly to single parents should spatially integrate accessible jobs with other needed activities via land-use and transportation planning. Alternatively, car-ownership programs and non-spatial social supports also might be effective to help secure job opportunities and perform daily life activities.     

Unobserved heterogeneity in transportation equity analysis: Evidence from a bike-sharing system in southern Tampa

Assessing the equity impacts of transportation systems/policies has become a crucial component in transportation planning. Existing statistical modeling approaches for transportation equity analysis have typically assumed that parameter estimates are constant across all observations and used data aggregated to certain geographic units for the analysis. Such methods cannot capture unobserved factors that are not contained in the dataset, i.e., unobserved heterogeneity, which is likely to be present in the increasingly popular disaggregated datasets. To investigate whether there is unobserved heterogeneity in transportation equity impacts, this study carries out an empirical study focusing on the distribution of individual accessibility to activity locations via bike-sharing in southern Tampa. A disaggregated dataset containing information on individual bike-sharing accessibility and socio-economic factors is modeled with a random parameters logit model that allows for the investigation of possible unobserved heterogeneity. Further, models are estimated using data aggregated to parcel- and TAZ-levels to explore the impacts of data aggregation on model estimation results. The models unveil the unobserved heterogeneity in bike-sharing accessibility among populations in different groups defined by different sociodemographic factors in southern Tampa. These results shed insights into how the inconsistent disparity direction of transportation outcomes across individuals in a population group can be measured from the heterogeneity effects. Finally, a comparison between different models show that to capture such inconsistency, the use of disaggregated data with heterogeneity models is highly recommended for transportation equity analysis.     

Using optimization to program projects in the era of communicative rationality

This paper presents an innovative approach to transportation programming in which optimization is a catalyst for public participation. Public participation is central to the paradigm shift that has occurred in transportation planning toward “communicative” methods. A case study is presented in which 133 public participants deliberated over a programming decision involving a local transportation tax. The paper explains how the problem was formulated for deliberation and describes the participatory benefits of providing an optimization tool. Participant feedback suggests the tool helped motivate, structure, and inform the deliberation.     

Fair accessibility – Operationalizing the distributional effects of policy interventions

A fair distribution of public transport benefits is a commonly stated goal of agencies and operators of public transport. However, it is less complicated and costly to provide accessibility in some parts of cities and their surroundings than in other parts. Densely populated areas, and areas situated closer to the city center therefore often have higher public transport accessibility than remote or sparsely populated areas. Neglecting these realities results with an unrealistic assessment of equity in service provision and hampers their consideration when setting policy goals. In this study, we propose a framework for investigating equity in the distribution of accessibility, where the suggested goal is to provide residents with equal accessibility for equally dense and central areas. For the Stockholm County, we show that accessibility may seem to be distributed horizontally inequitable and vertically regressive. However, once controlling for how dense and close to the city center residents live, while still being horizontally inequitable the distribution of accessibility in Stockholm County is found progressive, i.e., benefiting those with lower incomes. We demonstrate the proposed method for the case of skip-stop train operations and find that it shifts our constructed accessibility measure toward a more horizontally inequitable and vertically progressive state. We conclude that our proposed method can be a potent way for public transport agencies to measure and concretize equity goals and evaluate policy changes.     

Public transport accessibility accounting for level of service and competition for urban opportunities: An equity analysis for education in Santiago de Chile

Several cities around the world have changed their transportation planning paradigm, understanding that the prime goal is to provide access to opportunities for everyone. To address this goal, public transport plays a fundamental role and, therefore, it is key for developing a sustainable and equitable city.This paper proposes a methodology to analyze access to opportunities through public transport incorporating the user's valuation of attributes that impact the level of service on his/her trip and the competitiveness for urban opportunities. Using data from Santiago, Chile, we applied the proposed methodology to analyze accessibility to higher-quality public primary schools. We compare total travel time (TTT) with a proposed measure of total generalized travel time (TGTT) using simple potential and competitive accessibility indicators, accounting for the subjective valuation of walking time, travel time, waiting time, comfort and transfers, and translating them into in-vehicle time units.We find that the inclusion of competition has a more substantial impact than including the subjective valuation of the level of service in the accessibility to educational opportunities. Using competitive measures with TGTT, we found that around 20% of the zones in Santiago have at least a 50% deficit of higher-quality public education, and 71% of them are in peripheral areas. Furthermore, these zones, where medium and low-income population usually lives, can experience, on average, 1–2 transfers, 4–5 passengers per square meter, and 15-min waiting. We conclude that the proposed methodology provides a more comprehensive way to understand accessibility by incorporating the traveling experience, allowing to determine how and where to intervene to effectively improve accessibility, with a focus on urban equity.     

Accessibility across transport modes and residential developments in Nairobi

A key goal of urban transportation planning is to provide people with access to a greater number of opportunities for interaction with people and places. Measures of accessibility are gaining attention globally for use in planning, yet few studies measure accessibility in cities in low-income countries, and even fewer incorporate semi-formal bus systems, also called paratransit. Drawing on rich datasets available for Nairobi, Kenya this analysis quantifies place-based accessibility for walking, paratransit, and driving using three different measures: a mobility measure quantifying how many other locations in Nairobi can be reached in 60 min, a contour measure quantifying the number of health facilities that can be reached in 60 min, and a gravity measure quantifying the number of health facilities weighted by a time-decay function. Health facilities are used because they are an essential service that people need physical access to and as a representation of the spatial distribution of activities more broadly. The findings show that place-based accessibility is highest for driving, then paratransit, then walking, and that there are high levels of access to health facilities near the Central Business District (CBD) for all modes. Additionally, paratransit accessibility is comparatively better in the contour and gravity measures, which may mean that paratransit is efficiently providing access based on the spatial distribution of services. The contour measure results are also compared across different residential levels, which are grouped based on neighborhood characteristics and ordered by income. Counterintuitively, the wealthiest areas have very low levels of place-based accessibility for all modes, while poor areas have comparatively better walking access to health facilities. Interestingly, the medium low residential level, characterized in part by tenement apartment buildings, has significantly higher accessibility than other residential types. One way to reduce inequality in access across income groups is to increase spatial accessibility for the modes used by low- and middle-income households, for example with policies that prioritize public transport and non-motorized travel, integrate paratransit with land use development, and provide safe, efficient, and affordable options.     

Using PAR to frame sustainable transport and social justice on policy agendas. A pilot experience in two contrasting Chilean cities

If sustainable transport is defined by emissions and energy, urban passenger transport in Chile could be considered “sustainable”, with two-thirds of trips made by walking, cycling or public transit. Recent studies, however, reveal that gender and equity issues are highly problematic, pointing to tensions between environmental and social sustainability.Given these tensions, a university-community collaboration, the Laboratory for Social Change, developed a pilot methodology to define and evaluate Transport Justice. We sought a relatively simple instrument, a Transport Justice report (Balance de Transporte Justo, BTJ) that could combine experiential and academic knowledge and thereby influence policy and decision-making more effectively.We used a participatory action research (PAR) approach to bring together community leaders and university researchers, and consider experiential and research data, through this “transport justice” lens. To start, we introduced the idea of “transport justice” with researchers in different disciplines and citizen organizations involved in relatively specific battles: fighting a highway, for better cycling facilities, or for reduced road speeds, for example.We focused on established issues, such as universal access, walkability, cycle-inclusion, but added children's freedom and autonomy, the wise city (older adults, heritage, identity), care and land use, and transport impacts on ecological services. Building on this collaboration, we also applied a transport justice survey in two contrasting Chilean cities, Santiago and Temuco.Our analysis reveals that, despite a planning system that favours high-income households whose members rely mainly on cars, the majority of pedestrians, cyclists, public transit and even car users would prefer a redistribution of road space and investment in favour of active transport. During the next phase of research (2020–2021), we will test how well these results are taken up by citizen organizations, politicians and senior government staff from all parties. This will allow us to evaluate its effectiveness as a policy and power distributing instrument.     

Using accessibility indicators and GIS to assess spatial spillovers of transport infrastructure investment

This paper proposes a methodology to measure spatial spillovers of transport infrastructure investment and to monetize them by distributing the costs of the infrastructures envisaged according to the regional distribution of the potential accessibility benefits. We use a transport master plan (the Spanish “Plan Estratégico de Infraestructuras y Transporte” 2005–2020, PEIT) as a case study for applying our methodology. In order to calculate and map regional spillovers, economic potential values are computed using network routines in a Geographic Information System (GIS) by comparing two scenarios: firstly, the scenario PEIT 2020; and secondly the scenario which includes the improvements envisaged for the year 2020 in all the regions except the region whose spillover effects are being analyzed. The differences between these two scenarios represent the potential spatial spillover effects of this region on the rest of the regions. This procedure is repeated for each of the Spanish regions in order to calculate a matrix of inter-regional spillovers in economic potential units. In a second step, this matrix is monetized by distributing the costs of the investment in infrastructures envisaged in the region according to the regional distribution of the economic potential benefits. This inter-regional matrix of investments flows characterizes the “inner”, “export”, and “import” values of each of the regional road investments. Subtracting from the direct investment the exports to other regions and adding the imports from other regions, an estimation of the real investment of the plan in each region taking into account all the spillover effects is obtained. This value can be compared with the direct investment in the region, analyzing whether one region has more or less direct investment than real. The proposed methodology makes it transparent which regions benefit more from national transport investment irrespective of where the investment occurs. The spillover matrix can be a valid instrument, especially in federal states or in the case of transnational projects, in the field of regional economics because it offers very useful information for both planners and policy makers.     

Prioritizing low-stress and equitable bicycle networks using neighborhood-based accessibility measures

As cities across the United States strive to create comfortable bicycle networks for mainstream users, three topics have garnered attention: project prioritization criteria, accessibility to everyday destinations, and social equity. However, these topics have not often been integrated in research or practice. This paper introduces a method to assess the extent to which reductions in “Bicycle Level of Traffic Stress” (LTS) on segments of a citywide bicycle network increase accessibility to supermarkets, pharmacies, banks, and public libraries. Six accessibility performance measures are developed and evaluated for 278 neighborhoods in Baltimore, Maryland using a GIS-based approach. The demographic distributions of accessibility results are further analyzed, focusing on disadvantaged populations. Using a set of 106 proposed bicycle projects, the marginal accessibility gains and cumulative demographic impact across affected neighborhoods are assessed for each project. These results are ranked and crosslisted to identify a set of projects that balance accessibility gains with equity objectives. The prioritization results demonstrate some overlap with the short-term priorities embodied in City of Baltimore's 2015 Bike Master Plan, but they also highlight projects in other areas, specifically those that would serve neighborhoods most disadvantaged in terms of racial segregation, high poverty rates, and low rates of vehicle ownership.     

An innovative transit system and its impact on low income users: the case of the Metrocable in Medellín

The Metrocable in Medellín, Colombia, is an innovative system to improve access to deprived areas located in hilly zones. The idea to use cable cars as feeders to the metro was integrated into an ambitious urban project that, to date, has improved accessibility dramatically for some low-income residents. Using data before and after the project’s implementation, we evaluate the impact on social equity for the population in the zone of influence, considering changes in accessibility to employment and in housing-related costs. The access provided by the project to the main high-employment centres has doubled the number of opportunities that can be reached by the “target population,” even though travel-time savings and costs have seen only small changes. In fact, prior access to the CBD was poor and expensive, but time and costs were reduced with the Metrocable, although this reduction was not equal for all locations in the metropolitan area. In general, we argue that the main benefits, in terms of accessibility that differentiates the areas analysed from those used for comparison, are related to a localised ease of access to specific centres of activity according to the centralised development of the city’s job market along the mass transit lines. In terms of housing costs, we developed a set of difference-in-difference models that considered rent, transport, and public utilities costs; however, none of them have allowed us to conclude that there was a statistically valid relationship between the Metrocable and the changes in costs between the two analysed populations.     

On another track: Differing views of experts and politicians on rail investments in peripheral localities

Israeli politicians strongly support inter-urban rail investment and network development connecting peripheral localities, while transport experts voice criticism and oppose many of the planned investments. This study focuses on the lacuna in transportation scholarship regarding elected officials' expectations from rail investment in peripheral areas and its potential to reduce spatial disparities, stressing that there is little research effort to reveal the reasoning of politicians when promoting transport investment and the extent to which some of the political considerations may reflect an authentic representation of public sentiments.First, an explorative qualitative study was conducted, using multiple data sets, including 12 in-depth interviews with elected officials and transport decision makers, newspaper articles, and professional documents. Analysis identified four main themes with conflicting perspectives between transport experts and politicians: Marginal vis-a-vis revolutionary effects; daily vis-a-vis less frequent activities; transport link vis-a-vis emotional link and social justice vis-a-vis social commitment. These themes reflect the tension between the discourse of accessibility led by experts and the implied discourse of mobility by politicians.The second stage was based on a large scale survey of 2008 respondents from peripheral and central localities in Israel, aimed at revealing public beliefs and preferences regarding rail investment in peripheral localities.Results showed that differences of opinion between experts and politicians do not stem only from political bias or irrelevant interests but reflect experts' inability to consider benefits that are appreciated by both politicians and the general public. The study also draws attention to different approaches to the goals of transportation systems. While the dominant voice in scholarly discourse considers accessibility gains as the main goal of transport policy, both elected politicians and residents from peripheral localities also appreciate mobility gains.     

Qualifying accessibility to education to investigate spatial equity

Most accessibility studies are usually related to the number of potential reachable opportunities, disregarding attributes related to quality. Schools are usually distributed in the city, but does the quality of the service in these schools provide spatial equity to access the educational system? This study investigates accessibility to education considering different modes of transport and the quality of schools. It calculates and compares potential accessibility and revealed mobility in a highly unequal context, focusing on elementary schools in São Paulo, the largest city in Latin America. The empirical research reveals disparities between public and private schools regarding the quality and transport mode, unfolding spatial inequity. We hope that these findings provide further insights into better planning our cities for young people to move, study and live.     

Literature review on urban transport equity in transitional China: From empirical studies to universal knowledge

Rapid urbanization and a drastic socioeconomic transition from the centrally planned system to a market system in China provide a rare opportunity of observing urban transport equity. Literature on urban transport equity in Chinese cities is increasing. However, our understanding of urban transport equity in China is dominated by individual empirical studies, and an overall picture remains absent. This paper contributes the first literature review on urban transport equity in transitional China. Two key questions are answered. They are how transport equity is understood and examined in China, and what progress can be made to obtain universal knowledge of urban transport equity. This paper addresses the two questions by engaging with recent theoretical dialogue between the political philosophy of justice and Western transport equity research. This theoretical dialogue reconceptualizes transport equity into the equitable accessibility distribution mediated by institutional architecture to achieve equality of social opportunity among people. Based on a critical review of equity-concerned China transportation research and its reconceptualization, we propose an agenda for furthering urban transport equity research in transitional China. This research agenda calls for a shifted research focus (a) on evaluating the accessibility distribution of specific transport projects and policy, (b) on unpacking the political economy of transitional urban transport governance that determines the triumph/failure of the pro-growth/pro-equity accessibility distribution in the real setting, (c) on tracking the impact of accessibility distribution on disadvantaged groups' socioeconomic status and social mobility and putting forward appropriate policy/institution to improve the accessibility of disadvantaged groups, and (d) on revealing how the emerging social trends (e.g., information technology revolution and the aging society) reshape the individual capability to move/accessibility distribution.     

Public transit accessibility approach to understand the equity for public healthcare services: A case study of Greater Mumbai

Urban public health is one of the most critical yet neglected aspects of urban planning in developing countries such as India. Inequity in access to government healthcare facilities affects the overall urban population and can substantially negatively impact the vulnerable population, who mostly rely on government healthcare services. In this paper, the accessibility measure for healthcare services by public transport is developed using travel time and the number of transit stops (accounting for transit connectivity) for Greater Mumbai. We also identified socially vulnerable wards (administrative units) using a Social Vulnerability Index (SVI), developed based on 16 indicators using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Developed regression models showed that the proposed accessibility measure explains the coverage and usage of healthcare services better than the traditional accessibility measure, which is based on only aggregate level travel time impedances. South Mumbai has relatively better accessibility for public hospitals and dispensaries, whereas, lower level of accessibility is observed in the eastern part for public healthcare services. Assessment for the spatial inequity based on the Gini index, bivariate Moran's I, and mean access value reveals a higher degree of spatial inequity for accessing government hospitals for the slum population. The study developed a decision framework to suggest effective policy measures, which can be prioritised based on SVI to reduce the disparity in the spatial distribution of accessibility to government healthcare systems for vulnerable groups. Our findings can aid transportation and urban planners, health researchers, and policymakers to improve accessibility in under-served areas and give special attention to the needs of the vulnerable population.     

A systems-based approach to address unintended consequences of demand-driven transportation planning in national parks and public lands

In most cases, transportation planning in national parks and public lands might most appropriately be termed “demand-driven.” In this approach, rigorous analyses of park visitation, traffic, and parking data are used as a basis for transportation planning to accommodate current and projected future visitor demand, within financial constraints. Performance measures used to assess the quality of transportation systems in national parks are generally related to “moving people” efficiently. This approach is based on well-established principles for transportation planning in urban and rural communities. However, a demand-driven approach to transportation planning may not be suitable in national parks and public lands because it may enable levels of visitation that cause visitor crowding, resource impacts, and other unintended consequences. This paper introduces a more sustainable, systems-based transportation planning approach developed in the Rocky Mountain National Park (ROMO) to help the park operate its shuttle bus system efficiently and conveniently, and according to thresholds for visitor crowding and resource impacts at sites serviced by the shuttle system. The transportation planning approach developed in this study for ROMO is more suitable and sustainable for national parks and public lands than a demand-driven approach, and is readily adaptable to other locations. Correspondingly, the approach is now being applied in several other national parks and public lands recreation areas.     

Access to jobs and apartment rents

This study empirically explores the relationship between access to jobs and apartment rents. Specifically, the research examines the following three hypotheses: job accessibility positively influences apartment rents, the effect of job accessibility on apartment rents varies by transportation mode, and the effect of job accessibility on apartment rents varies by rent level. To examine these hypotheses, this study applies gravity-type job accessibility indexes based on a study sample of 7077 observations in the Taipei Metropolitan Area, Taiwan, from the year 2009. The sample data are analyzed using linear and quantile regressions. The empirical evidence confirms the positive effect of job accessibility on apartment rents, and its variability depending on the transportation mode and rental level. The effect of job accessibility on apartment rent is significantly positive in the median or lower-rent-level sub-markets, but insignificantly negative in higher-rent-level sub-markets. Job accessibility by motorcycle and public transit has a higher positive influence on rent than accessibility by car. These findings provide new knowledge on the role of access to jobs in explaining apartment rents, and reveal a fresh policy direction on rental subsidy programs for lower-income workers living in cities.     

Analysis of active school transportation in hilly urban environments: A case study of Dresden

This paper analyses the way students travel to school and examines the influence of environmental conditions on travel patterns. More specifically, it studies how topographic changes affect the likelihood of choosing cycling as a transport mode. We use mode choice data on students' home-to-school commuting trips from a previous study by Müller et al. (2008). The results show that models perform better when they account for the topographic conditions of the urban environment. We included this information in the model by introducing the “energy exerted” variable, which significantly improves the model and the results. The implications of this study are manifold; it guides the consolidation or expansion of school-based transportation network planning in Germany and prompts further analysis of active transportation systems, such as bike, pedelec and e-bike sharing systems. Overall, transportation policy should seek to foster active transportation, as it provides the greatest benefits for society and has a direct impact on people's well-being, while notably reducing the negative environmental and socioeconomic impacts of motorized transport.     

Methods for evaluation of transportation projects in the USA

“Projects”, as the term is used here, are capital investments—from resurfacing streets to multi-billion dollar construction—that create transportation infrastructure. “Methods” are primarily benefit–cost analysis, although other frameworks have been, and still remain, in use. Most projects are constructed by public agencies and authorities, primarily at the state and local level, but the federal government is the dominant source of evaluation guidance because most transportation projects use some share of federal funds.Benefit–cost analysis (BCA or BC) is a decision framework for government agencies to use in considering the desirability of taking alternative actions, whether investment, operations, or regulation. This survey describes the use of BCA by US transportation agencies, comparing theory, published guidance, and actual practice.     

Uncovering the spatially heterogeneous effects of shared mobility on public transit and taxi

A Mixed Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) model is applied to explore the effects of shared mobility trips on taxi and public transit ridership at the macro-level. Several essential variables, including socioeconomic, transportation, network, and land use data, are set as the causal factors. The experiment is conducted using the smart card data, vehicle GPS trajectories, and vehicle order data collected in Shenzhen City, China. We show that the Mixed GWR outperforms the basic GWR in model fitting and capturing the unobserved heterogeneity. The spatial analysis reveals that bike-sharing addresses the “last-mile” and “first-mile” problems to bus and metro in the urban periphery. It substitutes the bus and taxis in short-distance journeys in the city center. However, the over-placement of bike-sharing in some regions limits the flexibility of bike-sharing connections to the metro. In the city center, ride-hailing fills the gaps in bus coverage and competes with the metro. In the peripheral areas, ride-hailing replaces buses and improves the accessibility to metro stations. The transportation policy increases the cooperation between ride-hailing and taxis citywide, although competitions in few regions need to be solved. The abovementioned results provide policy suggestions to optimize the allocation of local transportation resources.