economic and environmental tradeoffs in agricultural sustainability: A Perspective

Concern for the economic and environmental impacts of production systems is at the heart of the debate on agricultural sustainability. Ideally, if a system is to be sustainable, it must also be economically viable, while not adversely affecting the environment. The appropriate balance between environmentally friendly systems and economic returns is not clear, as it depends on the period under consideration and hinges on the perspective used. Current evidence suggests that there are tradeoffs between achieving economic and environmental goals, at least in the short run, with given technology. Analysis suggests progress can be made by identifying agricultural systems and site-specific criteria associated with these systems, which eliminate the clearly unsustainable agricultural practices, rather than seeking a system that is defined as sustainable.The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the policies of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the Economic Research Service, or the view of other U.S. Department of Agriculture or Economic Research Service staff members.     

Sustainable mobility transitions and the challenge of countervailing trends: the case of personal aeromobility

Research on sustainable mobility transitions has focused on battery-electric vehicles, urban ‘smart’ cars, fuel-cell powered transport modes and power-assisted bicycles. While these studies have usefully exposed some of the dynamics governing sociotechnical change, developments outside the purview of sustainability have been largely ignored. A critical area of neglect concerns the growing popularity of personal aeromobility. Passenger dissatisfaction with commercial airlines, public concerns about terrorism, increasing affluence and creative marketing have expanded interest in private aviation. In parts of the USA, customised air travel is becoming a straightforward and affordable transport alternative. This article describes the mounting popularity of four segments of this trend: business/personal airplane acquisition, fractional aircraft ownership, flight-time cards and air taxis. It also highlights the role that the federal government is currently playing to overcome the technological obstacles to more pervasive personal aeromobility. A concluding section considers the ramifications of these activities on contemporary efforts to foster sustainable mobility and to conceptualise viable transition pathways.     

Selling the Farm Silver? Understanding Water Sales to the Australian Government

In 2007?C2008 the Australian federal government committed $3.1?billion over 10?years to purchase water from irrigators in the Murray-Darling Basin and to deliver this water to key environmental assets. Given that water entitlements often represent one of the most valuable assets owned by irrigators, this study investigates irrigators?? willingness to sell water, and their actual water sales, to the government. It uses 1,570 surveys from 2008?C2009 and 2010?C2011 in the southern Murray-Darling Basin. Water sales can be classified as either last resort or strategic. Overall, the results suggest that farmers who do not hold strong traditional farming attitudes, and have higher debt, lower farm income, larger high security water entitlements, lower water allocations over the past 5?years, and those who have been net sellers of water allocations are more likely to have sold water or are thinking of selling water to the government. A dynamic comparison of how water sale preferences change, and an estimate of the total amount of water entitlements irrigators are willing to sell, indicates that it is probable that there will be enough water offered to the program in the future, at least to meet initial minimum environmental water targets. However, other concerns indicate that a potential restructure of the program may be required.     

Strategic niche management: towards a policy tool for sustainable development

Strategic niche management (SNM) is a recently developed approach that could help induce a broad socio-technical transition towards more sustainable development. It is designed to facilitate the introduction and diffusion of new sustainable technologies through protected societal experiments in fields such wind energy, biogas, public transport systems, electric vehicle transport and eco-friendly food production. A major challenge in SNM concerns the processes by which such experiments can evolve into viable market niches and ultimately contribute to a broader shift towards sustainable development. This paper sheds more light on this issue by systematically consolidating the main SNM studies, and by bringing in new insights from the literature that is in some sense complementary to SNM. These are studies on the development and commercialisation of radical innovations in large companies, and literature about infant industry protection and broader industrialisation processes in developing countries. A number of suggestions for implementing SNM are given.     

关于农产品绿色营销策略的探讨

随着世界范围内的环境污染日益严重,自然资源的逐渐短缺以及人类对于身体健康的更加关注,绿色营销应运而生。我国作为一个农业生产和出口大国,农产品实施绿色营销战略意义重大。本文运用绿色营销学的基本理论和方法,研究了中国农业实施绿色营销的必要性,认为它既是中国农业可持续发展的必然要求,又是突破绿色贸易壁垒的重要手段,同时也顺应绿色消费的世界潮流。然后给出了现阶段我国农产品实施绿色营销的基本对策和建议,提出应大力推进农业产业化进程,加快完善农产品技术标准体系,积极倡导绿色消费观念以及实施绿色营销组合策略等。     

Asian development pathways and sustainable socio-technical regimes

Rapid industrialisation in Asia is generating a significant new demand for raw materials and pressure on local, regional and global environments. In the future these demands and pressures are expected to increase markedly. These concerns are models of development that assume that economic growth follows a pattern leading to a convergence between the structure, growth and productivity of economies over the long run. In these models, the structure of industries and sectors, technological capabilities and consumer preferences are regarded as converging towards patterns established in more advanced economies. By extension, convergence is also assumed to hold for the resource intensity and environmental pressure associated with growth in industrialising countries. This paper argues for greater attention to the resource and environmental quality of development. It argues that by applying ideas from an emerging literature on ‘systems innovation’ it becomes possible to envisage the emergence of new, more resource-efficient socio-technical systems as the basis of more sustainable development pathways in developing Asia. Such sustainable socio-technical systems will emerge in the context of interaction between domestic and globalised markets, knowledge flows and governance. Key issues for a research agenda are set out.     

Investing in natural capital as management strategy in fisheries: The case of the Baltic Sea cod fishery

Many of today's fish stocks are officially managed following the precautionary approach. Yet, different political objectives and uncertainties among fishermen about their economic future make its implementation difficult. Over 75% of all commercially valuable stocks are exploited, overused, or collapsed and in a state of recovery [FAO, 2004. The state of the world fisheries and aquaculture. FAO, Rome. Managing fish stocks with an ecosystem-based approach is likely to stop the divestment of natural capital by combining sustainable use strategies with the preservation of marine ecosystems. Using the example of the Baltic Sea cod fishery, we show that a recovery program is economically and ecologically viable and reduces negative externalities. While policy makers must assist fishermen during the early years of the program, fishermen will experience greater landings and profits in subsequent years.     

VALUING MANGROVE CONSERVATION IN SOUTHERN THAILAND

Mangroves are ecologically important coastal wetland systems that are under severe threat globally. In Thailand, the main cause of mangrove conversion is shrimp farming, which is a major source of export income for the country. However, local communities benefit from many direct and indirect uses of mangrove ecosystems and may have a strong incentive to protect these areas, which puts them into direct confrontation with shrimp farm operators and, by proxy, government authorities. The article examines whether or not the full conversion of mangroves into commercial shrimp farms is worthwhile once the key environmental impacts are taken into account. The estimated economic value of mangrove forests to a local community is in the range of $27,264-$35,921 per hectare. This estimate includes the value to local communities of direct use of wood and other resources collected from the mangroves as well as additional external benefits in terms of off-shore fishery linkages and coastline protection from shrimp farms. The results indicate that, although shrimp farming creates enormous private benefits, it is not so economically viable once the externalities generated by mangrove destruction and water pollution are included. There is also an incentive for local communities to protect mangroves, which in turn implies that the rights of local people to guard and protect this resource should be formally recognized and enforced by law.     

Revenue insurance purchase decisions of farmers

The objective of this study is to evaluate farm, household, and financial characteristics of cash grain farmers’ decisions of whether to purchase revenue insurance. Using farm-level data these characteristics were identified by estimating a logit model of revenue insurance purchase decisions by farm operators. Results indicate that farm operators with the ability to self-insure through accumulation of sufficient wealth reserves measured in terms of the ratio of debts-to-assets, operators with off-farm income, and participation in production and marketing contracts, are more likely to pursue these strategies as a substitute for federal revenue insurance programmes. Further, study finds that older and wealthy cash grain farmers are less likely to buy revenue insurance.     

Greenhouse gas abatement policies and the value of carbon sinks: Do grazing and cropping systems have different destinies?

This paper presents a case study in which the effects of agri-environmental policy on two Mediterranean-type farming systems, grazing dominant and cropping dominant, are contrasted. Two greenhouse gas abatement policies are examined; an emissions taxation policy and an emissions restrictions policy. The study seeks to determine firstly, how the policy impacts on the farming systems, and from that, how the nature of the farming systems impact on the effectiveness of the policy. It is shown that relative costs of abatement are higher for the grazing-dominant farming system. However, in the absence of technological change to aid abatement, the cost of substitution from high emitting enterprises, such as livestock, to low emitting enterprises, such as crop production, will determine the cost of abatement. For both farming systems the restriction policy is found to be more effective and economically efficient than the taxation policy. The analysis found that crediting trees as carbon sinks can significantly reduce the costs of abatement. At predicted emissions permit prices, trees would be adopted by both farming systems to offset farm greenhouse gas emissions.     

A coevolutionary model for promoting agricultural sustainability

This article presents a coevolutionary model of agricultural development that is based on observations from the environmental history of agriculture and the need for addressing development processes toward sustainability. It asserts that the challenge of agricultural sustainability can be fruitfully addressed within an analytical framework that consciously and explicitly considers agricultural development as consisting of processes of coevolution involving agriculture and the surrounding ecological and socioeconomic systems. Widening the processes to include strong interconnectedness with national and global systems with respect to off-farm resources and farm outputs has led to various agro-ecological problems. Strengthening local interaction and interconnectedness in a rural-urban context is found to be essential for developing a system of sustainable agriculture. Such development requires influencing many subsystems and implementing changes in production methods and land use as short-term responses to the problem, and technological development, resource allocation and changes in values as long-term responses. It also requires some sustainability principles and indicators in order to direct actions and to facilitate communications, which can be derived from the model. Applying the model on Swedish agricultural sustainability during the twentieth century reveals some, probably, important findings for “building” sustainable agriculture and lends support to the usefulness of the model.     

长江三角洲生态稻作模式及其效应的比较分析

农业生产对长江三角洲农业环境的影响,一直是社会广泛关注的焦点。水稻种植是长江三角洲农业生产的主要方式。以江苏省为例,在田间试验、农户调查和文献收集的基础上,分析了该省主要生态稻作模式的技术特征及其环境和经济效应。调查和分析结果显示:(1)江苏省生态稻作主要有稻鸭共作型(丹阳)、环境友好型(吴江)和沼气复合型(淮阴)三种典型模式;(2)这三种稻作模式在土壤肥力、生态环境和经济效益上存在一定的差异,但均显著高于当地常规的集约化稻作模式。为了进一步促进该区生态稻作模式的发展,以有效的方式减轻长江三角洲地区的农业环境问题,文章就配套政策方面提出了一些建设性建议。     

Foreign trade, environmental protection and sustainable economic growth in China

Since the 1990s, China has exhibited growth in both foreign trade and the economy. Promoting environmental protection and sustainable economic growth are main concerns in the academic profession in the country. This paper makes an empirical analysis of trade and environmental pollution, and discusses the inherent relationship between foreign trade, environmental protection and sustainable economic growth. In addition, this paper makes several policy suggestions with a view to adjusting trade structure, enforcing environmental protection and promoting sustainable economic growth in China.     

我国节能减排工作中的战略误区与对策研究

分析了2000～2009年我国的汽车产销量和石油产销量,指出由于我们现在存在认识力度不够、产业结构不合理、法律监管体系不健全等影响因素,造成了我国经济发展与环境污染之间的矛盾日益突出。文章指出,要解决我国目前存在的环境问题,可以从强化人们的认识,优化产业结构,建立可持续能源系统,完善政府节能体系,建立和完善节能保护机制等一系列的节能减排措施来提高我国的环境现状,从而实现可持续性的发展。     

基于低碳旅游理念的创意农庄项目开发初探

低碳旅游是一种降低＂碳＂的旅游,也就是在旅游活动中,旅游者尽量降低二氧化碳排放量。休闲农庄资源规划与开发应以生态优先,可持续发展为第一指导原则。在具体的项目开发建设中要注重妥善解决开发所带来的环境破坏和污染,采取必要的生态措施和技术改善林网、水系、田园的农业生态环境,培育绿色产业,繁荣传统文化,构成绿色产业体系。把＂绿色生态文明＂＂可持续发展＂融入各项目区的规划建设之中,高度重视资源保护和文化传承,充分发挥农业、农村、农民的生态和文化优势,吸引游客观光休闲和精心体验,避免盲目开发、无序开发和破坏性开发,走资源节约型,环境友好型的可持续发展道路。     

Graded eco-labels: A demand-oriented approach to reduce pollution

Supplied oriented environmental policies are generally used in order to limit production related pollution. This fact is based on the hypothesis that consumers are not willing to sacrifice personal utility for a wider social gain. We suggest that widespread environmental concerns of consumers can be exploited to push producers along cleaner technological patterns. Our core assumption is that consumers would be ready to purchase cleaner products if the products' characteristics are not ‘too dissimilar’ to those of more polluting alternatives. However, due to a lack of information about non-observable product characteristics, this assumption on its own is not sufficient for ‘environmental friendly’ producers to become competitive. We show - by means of a simulation model - that only if consumers are provided with appropriate information on the greenness of products through adequate eco-labels (graded eco-labels), then producers will be pressed to implement innovations aimed at reducing the environmental impact of their products. Under two test settings - one without any certification and another with binary eco-labels - the model shows markets characterised by highly polluting technological patterns. Only in the presence of graded eco-labels, competition drives the market toward cleaner technological patterns.     

Input-Orientated Data Envelopment Analysis Framework for Measuring and Decomposing Economic,Environmental and Ecological Efficiency: An Application to OECD Agriculture

This paper presents an input-orientated data envelopment analysis (DEA) framework which allows the measurement and decomposition of economic, environmental and ecological efficiency levels in agricultural production across different countries. Economic, environmental and ecological optimisations search for optimal input combinations that minimise total costs, total amount of nutrients, and total amount of cumulative exergy contained in inputs respectively. The application of the framework to an agricultural dataset of 30 OECD countries revealed that (i) there was significant scope to make their agricultural production systems more environmentally and ecologically sustainable; (ii) the improvement in the environmental and ecological sustainability could be achieved by being more technically efficient and, even more significantly, by changing the input combinations; (iii) the rankings of sustainability varied significantly across OECD countries within frontier-based environmental and ecological efficiency measures and between frontier-based measures and indicators.     

Networking among Russian farmers and their prospects for success

In most post-socialist economies, private farming has re-emerged after regime change, although even today this sector most often accounts for only a minor proportion of national production. Russian private farmers are reported to dislike formal cooperatives, so this study investigated whether their informal collaborative arrangements may affect their business results. A survey involving personal interviews with 158 randomly chosen private farmers in the Kurgan Region examined whether collaborating farmers are economically more successful and consider their financial situation to be better than that of neighbouring farmers. Ordinary least square and ordered probit regression analysis indicated that farmers with stronger networks are more successful in terms of farm wealth, and also relative to the financial situation of their immediate neighbours. This suggests that success among private farmers in a post-socialist setting is related to their networks.     

Measuring farm sustainability and explaining differences in sustainable efficiency

A major objective of European agricultural policy is to have a sustainable and efficient farming sector that is applying environmentally-friendly production methods. Policy makers aim to combine a strong economic performance and a sustainable use of natural resources. Therefore, it is important to measure and to assess farm sustainability. For a large dataset of Flemish dairy farms, a valuation method that is based on the concept of opportunity costs is used to calculate and analyze differences among the sample farms with respect to the creation of “sustainable value”. But more important than measuring the creation of sustainable value is to analyze differences in sustainable efficiency. Therefore, sustainable efficiency measures are calculated and differences in sustainable efficiency are explained. Using panel data, an effect model captures the determinants of sustainable efficiency of the studied farms. The empirical model shows that, in general, larger farms have a higher sustainable efficiency. Also farmer's age and dependency on support payments proved to be determining characteristics for observed differences in sustainable efficiency.     

The economic consequences of substituting carbon payments for crop subsidies in U.S. agriculture

There is a growing body of literature on the costs of sequestering carbon. However, no studies have examined the interplay between farm commodity programs and carbon sequestration programs. This study investigates two dimensions of the interaction between farm commodity programs and afforestation programs, using a price-endogenous sector model of agriculture in the United States. First, this study compares the fiscal and welfare costs of achieving specific carbon targets through afforestation, with and without current farm programs. Second, it examines the welfare, fiscal, and carbon consequences of replacing existing farm subsidies, wholly or in part, with payments for carbon. Two approaches, Hicksian and Marshallian, are investigated. In the first, the sector model is used to quantify the carbon consequences and fiscal costs associated with various combinations of farm commodity and carbon sequestration programs that leave consumers and producers in the U.S. agricultural sector no worse off than under existing farm programs. The second approach focuses on the carbon and welfare consequences of various farm commodity and carbon sequestration programs that hold total program fiscal costs constant at current levels. Althouth the methodology and data are applied to the United States, the issues addressed are common in a number of developed nations, particularly within the European Union (EU). Adapting existing sector models in these nations to perform similar analyses would provide policy makers with more precise information about the nature of the trade-offs involved with second-best policies for replacing farm commodity subsidies with tree planting subsidies.The research reported in this paper was partially funded by the United States Environmental Protection Agency under contract number 68W90077. It does not reflect the official position of that agency. Mention of trade names does not constitute endorsement.