需求价格弹性分析

在大多数情况下,产品定价时需求价格弹性的计算多使用点弹性公式,这在营销学中是有缺陷的。本文对其进行了 分析,并提出应使用弧弹性公式指导产品定价。     

民航业的需求差别定价:特点和运用

尽管民航业的需求差别定价是经济学上价格歧视理论在民航业的运用,但它不完全等同于经济学上的价格歧视,它不是垄断实力的表现,它是价格歧视和产品差别化的统一;它是在面对运载量一定和市场需求不断变化的情况下,进行座位最优分配时形成的一种内生的、动态的需求差别定价。民航业的需求差别定价主要属于二级差别定价,它的运用要求航空公司严格执行各种限制条件。只有充分理解民航业需求差别定价的这些特点,已基本具备实施差别定价能力和权利的各航空公司才能真正理解和正确运用差别定价,制定合理的价格,进行理性的价格竞争,否则只会简单地、机械地模仿国外的多级票价体系,得到的只是一种虚拟的客座率,并会引发破坏性的价格大战,影响民航业的正常发展。     

需求价格弹性、销售收益和企业利润的关系研究：基于成本策略视角

将成本策略引入到需求价格弹性与利润的对应关系模型中,找到了企业在以保利润为目标时,临界需求价格弹性计算方法,开创性地分析出在降低变动成本策略下企业如何进行价格调整以及如何确定调整幅度,给出具有操作性的推论,对企业具有实际参考价值。     

商品质量变化与隐性价格运动

价格变化有两种情况:一种是人们常见的市场价格的变化,它是在商品的现有质量或规定质量的基础上以讨价还价、订立协议来确定的,一经确定就直观地展现在买卖双方的面前,在协议规定的时限内呈现相对稳定的状态;另一种是隐蔽性的价格变化。所谓隐蔽性的价格或简称“隐性价格”,是指在市场价格不发生变化的情况下商品的质量发生了变化,或者市场价格虽     

典型市场下食品企业的质量安全投资力度

建立优化模型,分别分析了完全垄断下消费者和企业共同承担质量安全投资成本以及企业完全承担质量安全投资成本两种情况下食品企业的质量安全投资力度和价格决策,以及寡头垄断下供给高、低质量安全水平食品的两类企业的质量安全投资力度和价格决策,并分析了需求价格效应和供给价格效应、需求投资力度差、投资边际成本对质量安全投资力度和价格决策的影响。最后,总结了研究结论对提高中国食品安全水平的相应启示。     

需求弹性理论分析及企业决策应用

需求价格弹性是需求弹性分类中的一种,它与企业的销售收入有着直接的关系,而传统理论对于需求价格弹性与企业销售收入间关系的结论不够准确,本文在传统理论的基础上,更进一步的给出相关的证明。并且本文也分析需求弹性理论在企业决策中的重要应用。     

发达国家公用事业的价格规制

一、发达国家规制公用事业的基本经验(一)美国对公用事业价格的规制1.公用事业价格规制机构及规制形式。美国没有专门的公用事业价格规制机构,它对公用事业价格的规制是与对公用事业的规制结合在一起的。公用事业价格分别被联邦政府、州政府以及县、市政府规制。在下级政府规制与上级政府规制要求相一致的情况下,州、县、市分别规制辖区内的公用事业价格,而联邦政府则规制州与州之间的公用事业价格。目前,各级政府对公用事业价格规制的形式主要有司法规制、直接立法规制、特许权规制、委员会规制、非直接规制等。2.公用事业价格制定的原则、…     

“价格战”与价格垄断并存的经济学分析

2000年经济运行过程“价格战”与价格垄断行为关存的现象所提示的是供价格与需求价格之间矛盾的激化,供给价格主要取决于供给方的平均成本。需求价格是需求方的群体出价。消费对产品的效用评价决定其出价高低。供给与需求双方都坚持自己的出价,供给价格与需求价格之间矛盾就无法通过利益妥协获得协调。体制性缺陷是供给价格与需求价格之间矛盾激化的根本原因。缓解供给价格与需求价格之间矛盾的主要政策指向应当是反垄断。     

货币政策的价格预期传导机制

通过建立价格预期影响居民和厂商决策的数理模型,阐明了未来价格预期对居民的现期消费需求和货币需求,以及厂商投资需求、劳动要素需求和产品定价行为的影响。在此基础上,进一步研究了以价格预期作为传导中介的货币政策传导机制过程,并探讨了这种传导机制的目标体系,价格预期中介目标的可测性、可控性和相关性以及理想的货币政策操作规程。     

局部均衡模型的另一种形式

局部均衡模型的另一种形式李宝宁局部均衡模型是马歇尔对完全竞争的单一商品市场上需求和供给分析的模型。它指出，市场力量能使价格调整，并趋于达到均衡价格，均衡价格能使市场出清，使供给等于需求，既无过剩又无短缺。它通过供给曲线和需求曲线的交点决定均衡价格。本...     

Complexities due to sluggish expansion of backstop technologies

This paper considers an economy using a technology that adds to a stock of pollution. Examples that come to mind are SO₂-emissions from burning coal accumulating in the soil and CO₂-emissions from fossil-energy use which are retained in the atmosphere. The stock of pollutants is subject to natural decay, albeit not necessarily of the simple often assumed linear type. In addition, a clean or so-called backstop technology is available that requires costly investments but is characterized by low variable costs (e.g., solar energy or wind power). The costly investments imply a slow build-up of the capacity of the backstop. On the modelling side, this is an essential extension of most of the literature that considers the unrealistic case where a backstop is instantaneously available. The second extension the present paper makes is to consider not only the planning problem but also the competitive outcomes. One of the interesting results is that stable limit cycles may characterize the socially optimal long-run outcome as well as the competitive equilibrium. In a competitive equilibrium pollution-control policy is not necessarily optimal in the sense of corresponding with the social optimum. Although cycling can occur in a competitive equilibrium, just as in the social optimum, relaxation of the control increases the set of parameter values for which complex and unstable behavior arises.     

Disentangling supply and demand shifts: the impacts on world salmon price

To understand price changes, one must determine the relative impact of supply and demand shifts on price. Conditional on predetermined supply and demand elasticities, we retrieve yearly shifts in regional supply and demand. The relative impact on price from each supply and demand shift is determined through an equilibrium displacement model (EDM). This procedure is applied on a yearly basis for the world salmon market in the period 2002 to 2011. The results indicate a large variation in demand and supply growth both over time and between regions. While average annual price impacts from supply or demand shifts from most regions are not statistically significant, price impacts from supply or demand shifts for specific periods are detected in all but one region. This indicates that the use of smooth trend indicators is likely to be inappropriate for measuring supply and demand shifts and their impacts on price. The procedure presented in this article can be a useful instrument for determining the relative impacts of supply and demand shifts on price in any market with unstable price behaviour.     

Optimal Pricing and Price-Cap Regulation in the Postal Sector

This paper studies the optimal price structure in the postal sector when worksharing is available (e.g., for collection, sorting and transportation) and when the operator faces a break-even constraint. Users differ in opportunity and cost to engage in worksharing. We determine the optimal worksharing discount and provide sufficient conditions (on demand functions) under which it exceeds the ECPR level. Furthermore, we show that the optimal prices can be implemented through a global price cap imposed on a weighted average of the prices of all products. The appropriate weights are proportional to the market demand (evaluated at optimal prices) of the corresponding products.     

Forecasting demand for electricity in Maryland: An econometric approach

Most of the models for forecasting demand for energy are based on simple extrapolations of past trends or on a simple regression equation with price of the energy and the stock of appliances as explanatory variables. In this paper, an attempt has been made to derive static and dynamic multiple regression equations from economic theory of consumption and production (Section II). Historical data were fitted to these theoretical constructs to test the equations in terms of econometric theory and forecast the demand according to “higher order conditional interval forecasts”. The residential demand for electricity is a function of its price, price of its substitute, per capita income and a lagged demand variable for dynamic adjustment of actual demand to equilibrium demand for electricity. The forecasts of residential demand to 1990 are based on projections of exogenous variables such as residential price of electricity, per capita income and the estimated long run elasticity of demand (Section III). The nonresidential demand for electricity is a function of employment in that sector, sectoral prices of electricity and the lagged sectoral demand. The forecasts of nonresidential electricity demand are also based on projections of its independent variables (Section IV). The last section converts the total demand for electricity into the required generating capacities and juxtaposes them against the estimates of expected supplies available from the forecasts of the utilities. The paper concludes that the eighties will be faced with excess supply of electricity in Maryland, in case the assumptions of projections of independent variables hold good. The misallocation of resources inherent in such excess supplies could be avoided if realistic scenerios of future demand, as attempted in this paper, could be predicted.     

Forecasting crude oil spot price using OECD petroleum inventory levels

This paper presents a short-term monthly forecasting model of West Texas Intermediate crude oil spot price using OECD petroleum inventory levels. Theoretically, petroleum inventory levels are a measure of the balance, or imbalance, between petroleum production and demand, and thus provide a good market barometer of crude oil price change. Based on an understanding of petroleum market fundamentals and observed market behavior during the post-Gulf War period, the model was developed with the objectives of being both simple and practical, with required data readily available. As a result, the model is useful to industry and government decision-makers in forecasting price and investigating the impacts of changes on price, should inventories, production, imports, or demand change. This work is partially sponsored by the Office of Strategic Petroleum Reserve, Department of Energy, USA, and was presented at the International Atlantic Economic Conference, Athens, Greece, March 2001.     

Estimation of the effects of price on apartment water demand using cointegration and error correction techniques

Water price is a key instrument in regulating water demand in the residential sector. Many empirical studies have assessed the effects of price through quantifying the price elasticity of water demand. However, most of these studies have mainly focused on the single-family housing rather the multifamily housing. An in-depth understanding of the price elasticity of multifamily housing water demand is paramount for water planners in order to properly manage water use in the fast growing intensive housing developments in urban areas. This study investigates both the long-term and short-term price elasticities of water demand in the residential apartments in Auckland central city. Using 6 years of monthly time series data, the price elasticities were estimated through cointegration and error correction methods. The results showed that the price elasticities of water demand were ?0.14 and ?0.12 in the short term and the long term, respectively. The price is inelastic yet negative and statistically significant, thus it can play a role in demand management.     

Fixed price plus rationing: an experiment

This paper theoretically and experimentally explores a fixed price mechanism in which, if aggregate demand exceeds supply, bidders are proportionally rationed. If demand is uncertain, in equilibrium bidders overstate their true demand in order to alleviate the effects of being rationed. This effect is the more intense the lower the price, and bids reach their upper limit for sufficiently low prices. In the experiment we observe a significant proportion of equilibrium play. However, subjects tend to overbid the equilibrium strategy when prices are high and underbid when prices are low. We explain the experimental evidence by a simple model in which the probability of a deviation is decreasing in the expected loss associated with it.

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Trade Policies for Exporting Industries under Free Entry

This paper computes optimal export taxes and domestic production subsidies for exporting industries under free entry. We show that domestic welfare is not at maximum, as is typically believed, when the export price is a monopoly price, and the domestic price is a competitive price, because a market structure effect has to be taken into account. Furthermore, we show that the optimal tax/subsidy formulas for an oligopoly coincide with those under perfect competition, if foreign and domestic demand functions are both linear. We also discuss optimal trade policies when only one instrument is available, and we run numerical simulations to determine and compare optimal trade taxes under endogenous and exogenous market structures.     

MONETARISM AND THE USE OF MARKET PRICES AS MONETARY POLICY INDICATORS

Recently proposed strategies for employing market price indicators as guides to monetary policy embody many key propositions of monetarism. Moreover, market price advocates' prescribed policy instruments and operating procedures for conducting monetary policy are not inconsistent with a monetarist perspective and fully incorporate the incentive structure of the money creation process. The market price approach differs from monetarism in three key areas: the data employed to measure intermediate indicators, the environments in which the approach works, and the policy role of the dollar. More specifically, the market price approach employs data that are readily available in unrevised form and that make better use of limited information than do monetary or reserve data. The approach produces the same results as does a monetarist approach when money demand is stable, and it produces monetarists' desired stable price results when money demand is unstable. Finally, the approach embodies a policy role for the U.S. dollar and (implicitly) recognizes the policy implications of the dollar as a reserve currency.     

当前房地产价格走势与宏观调控策略选择

房地产价格形成的基础具有其他商品所没有的特殊性。面对房地产价格快速上涨的态势，为了既不伤害房地产业的健康发展，又能有效满足广大城市居民对住宅的需求，应当把宏观调控的切入点放在直接调近代房地产供求。稳定房地产价格的关键在于实现有效供求平衡。