新疆城市居民收入不平等现状分析

本文采用基尼系数及其分解公式对新疆2003年城市居民收入调查的2828个样本数据进行分析，根据新疆的地理特征将基尼系数按南疆与北疆进行分解计算，并按收入来源对基尼系数进行集中度分解分析，结果表明新疆的收入不平等状况并不严重，南疆的收入差距大于北疆，工资收入和转移收入是收入差距增大的主要原因。     

A matrix approach to the Gini index decomposition by subgroup and by income source

The literature offers two main ways of decomposing the Gini index: decomposition by population subgroup and by income source. This article proposes merging the two decomposition dimensions by suggesting a matrix formula for the Gini index which permits the simultaneous decomposition by subgroup and by income source. Using this multi‐decomposition, one can investigate the role of the interaction between the subgroup and the source components in determining the overall inequality. We apply the methodology to sample data on Italian household incomes collected in 2008.     

Calculation and decomposition of income inequality in low- and middle-income countries: a survey data analysis

This article estimates income inequality in a sample of four low- and middle-income (LMI) countries namely; Albania, Nepal, Tajikistan and Tanzania using the household survey data – Nepal Living Standard Measurement Survey Second. First, we estimate the income generation function for each country and calculate the income inequality using Gini index (GI). Second, we decompose the income Gini into the determinants of income generation functions. Based on the decomposition result, socio-economic factors are the most important determinants of income inequality followed by geographic factors. Demographic factors have the least effect on income inequality in all four countries. Third, we propose a new method to quantify the effect of change in each covariate of income generation function on income Gini. That allows us to quantify the effects of change in specific policy such as increase in investment in schooling or public health to specific group of the population in society on income inequality. A carefully chosen, integrated policy can significantly reduce inequality in all four countries under study.     

影响我国农村居民收入差距的主要因素:从收入构成角度的分解分析

This paper attempts to explore the causes behind the change of the inequality in China rural areas at the very beginning of this century by decomposing the inequality of the total per capita income into the contributions from different income components. Furthermore, we develop the decomposition method of Gini coefficients from the income components and use it not only in the static analysis but also in comparative static analysis. Namely it can be used to explore the change of the overall inequality by decomposing the change of Gini Coefficient from income components. The empirical results show that the wage from local employment, the income from agricultural household business and the incomes from non-agricultural household business are the three income components that made the largest contributions to the inequality of the total per capita income. The total contribution to the overall inequality of non-agricultural incomes was much more than that of agricultural incomes. The incomes from agricultural household business, the incomes from non-agricultural household business and the wages from migration made the positive impact on the increase of the overall inequality. The incomes donated by relatives and friends made the most important negative impact on the increase of the overall inequality.     

The Changing Pattern of Sources of Income and its Impact on Inequality: The Method and its Application to Australia, 1975–94

This paper proposes a new method of explaining the temporal change in economic inequality in terms of changes in the sources of income. The method is based on the decomposition of the Gini coefficient by source of income. Using this method, the paper also examines changes of the sources of private income in Australia over the last two decades and their impact on the distribution of income. It will be seen that not only have the shares of income from different sources changed, but that there has been significant change in inequality of distribution of the components themselves.     

POVERTY AND INCOME INEQUALITY IN PUERTO RICO, 1969–89: TRENDS AND SOURCES

The paper examines Puerto Rican trends in income distribution during the 1970s and 1980s, then attempts to ascertain the source of the changes in income inequality through a decomposition of the Gini coefficient by factor income source. The study finds that poverty and inequality declined unambiguously during the twenty-year period. The source of the fall in income concentration was found to have been tied, not to changes in the distribution or share of earned income, but to that of unearned income, particularly transfers. These appear to have also accounted for the decline in poverty.     

中国农村地区间居民收入差距及构成变化:1995—2008年——基于基尼系数的分解

本文采用分省的面板数据对农村地区间基尼系数分解结果表明,1995—2008年,中国农村地区间收入差距总体上仍然呈现上升趋势,基尼系数上升了0.0639,但增幅出现明显减弱趋势。基尼系数变化及农村居民工资性收入对基尼系数的贡献变化显示出与经济发展阶段变化一致的含义;结构性效应已不再是农村地区间收入差异的唯一构成来源,收入集中效应对基尼系数起了明显的增加作用,工资性收入的集中效应超过了其他收入来源。这些构成来源的变化蕴含着中国面临调节地区间农村收入差距的政策机遇。     

Income inequality between overlapping and stratification: a longitudinal analysis of personal earnings in France and Italy

The aim of this paper is to gain new insights into the generation process of personal income in France and Italy, two countries that are in close geographical proximity but have a large disparity in terms of income growth and distribution. In the first step, the potential of EU-SILC balanced panel (2004–2007) is exploited by random effects models, which also make it possible to explore the primary factors that are likely to explain differences in generating personal labour earnings. In the second step, the ANOGI (Analysis of Gini) decomposition enables one to assess the contribution of each sub-population to overall income inequality and the degree to which each subgroup is stratified. A joint evaluation of income determinants gives evidence of the high complexity of inequality process and throws light on the role of gender, skill levels and job characteristics in determining different degrees of income stratification. Indeed, although the high heterogeneity among members of a same subgroup (within-group inequality) explains a large share of overall income inequality, the between-group inequality becomes significant in explaining the income differentials between employment status and occupation types.     

A Gini decomposition analysis of inequality in the Czech and Slovak Republics during the transition1

Disposable income inequality, as measured by the Gini coefficient and using the Family Budget Survey data, increased very little, and by a similar amount, from 1989 to 1993 in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. This surprising result is examined with an analysis of changes in the channels of redistribution and Gini decomposition. We find that the sizeable increase in overall inequality due to changes in the wage earnings component is mitigated by changes in the tax and transfer components in both republics. As for the relative effects of government policies, changes in the transfer component contributed more than changes in the tax component to lowering the growth of inequality in the Czech Republic, while the reverse was true for Slovakia.     

Estimation of Concentration Measures and Their Standard Errors for Income Distributions in Poland

Measures of concentration (inequality) are often used in the analysis of income and wage size distributions. Among, them the Gini and Zenga coefficients are of greatest importance. It is well known that income inequality in Poland increased significantly in the period of transformation from a centrally planned economy to a market economy. High income inequality can be a source of serious problems, such as increasing poverty, social stratification, and polarization. Therefore, it seems especially important to present reliable estimates of income inequality measures for a population of households in Poland in different divisions. In this paper, some estimation methods for Gini and Zenga concentration measures are presented together with their application to the analysis of income distributions in Poland by socio-economic groups. The basis for the calculations was individual data coming from the Polish Household Budget Survey conducted by the Central Statistical Office. The standard errors of Gini and Zenga coefficients were estimated by means of the bootstrap and the parametric approach based on the Dagum model.     

Measuring the Impact of Various Income Sources on the Link between Inequality and Development: Implications for the Kuznets Curve

To understand the link between inequality and development, a decomposition of the Gini index by income sources is used that emphasizes the role of three components measuring the impact of the shares of the sources, the degree to which they are unequally distributed, and their correlation with total income. Such a breakdown explains why the rising section of the Kuznets curve is mainly the consequence of the increasing share of wages while its declining section reflects the decreasing share of entrepreneurial income and the negative correlation between transfers and total income. The data sources were provided by the International Labour Office.     

THE DISAGGREGATION OF THE GIN1 COEFFICIENT BY FACTOR COMPONENTS AND ITS APPLICATIONS TO AUSTRALIA

This paper demonstrates the proper use of the disaggregation of the Gini coefficient by factor components by deriving a formula of the elasticity of the Gini coefficient with respect to specific income components. The method is then applied to Australian household expenditure survey data to find the effects of various components of income on overall income inequality. The results are important in examining the effects of growth in specific components on the overall inequality and hence in policy decisions with respect to redistribution of income.     

村庄选举和收入分配——来自8省48村的证据

运用1986—2002年间8省48村和家庭的调查数据,本文研究了村庄选举的引进如何影响村一级的收入分配,发现引进选举制度使村级基尼系数降低6·4%—8%。我们也分析了选举的时间效应,发现首届选举后的第3—6年间,选举降低收入分配差距的效果最显著。这些结论对正确地认识和完善村庄选举具有重要的参考意义。     

Income inequality and FDI: evidence with Turkish data

This article explores how foreign direct investment (FDI) and other determinants impact income inequality in Turkey in the short- and long-run. We apply the nonlinear auto-regressive distributed lag (ARDL) modelling approach, which is suitable for small samples. The data for the study cover the years from 1970 to 2008. The empirical results indicate the existence of a co-integration relationship among the variables with asymmetric adjustment of the income distribution in the short- and long-run. The negative impact of FDI on the Gini coefficient, decreasing income inequality, is statistically significant in the short- and long-run, though with a quantitatively small impact in both cases. In the short run, GDP growth increases inequality initially, an effect that is reversed in the next period, increases in domestic gross capital formation decreases inequality, and increases in the literacy rate have very minor adverse effects on income equality. However, in the long run these variables have no statistically significant effects on the Gini coefficient. A reduction in the population growth rate reduces inequality in the short run but has no effect in the long run, whereas an increase in the rate reduces inequality in the long run but has no effect in the short run.     

本地非农就业、外出务工与中国农村收入不平等*

随着巨大的经济和社会变革,中国的收入不平等程度发生了巨大变化。依据CHIP家庭微观调查1988-2007年的数据,使用基尼系数分解以及非参数分解等多种方法,本文试图对本地非农就业、外出务工等不同类型的家庭从业模式与农村收入不平等的关系进行较为全面的探讨。研究得出了一些有价值的结论：首先,从整体的收入分布来看,早期的农村地区的发展更多伴随着不平等程度提高,而后期经济增长则带来更多福利改善;其次,家庭主要非农收入来源是本地非农就业,外出务工所得具有缩小收入差距的作用,而本地非农就业则具有扩大作用,随着时间推移其作用程度也有所改变;最后,经济增长成果惠及不同群体,但并非平均分配,不同群体获益情况不同,增长和不平等通过作用于不同类型家庭影响到最终的收入分布。     

BETWEEN GROUP INEQUALITY AND TARGETED TRANSFERS

This paper provides two extensions to the group decomposition of the Gini index by Yitzhaki and Lerman. First, within group, stratification, and between group inequality are analyzed along several dimensions at once. This provides for a better understanding of the determinants of inequality. Second, the impact on the Gini of marginal changes in income or consumption by group is derived. This can be used to evaluate targeted redistributive policies or assess the impact of exogenous shocks by group. The analysis is applied to data from Bangladesh with a focus on the impact of land ownership, education, and occupation on inequality.     

Industrialization and spatial income inequality in rural China, 1986-921

Rural industrialization has been a dominant factor responsible for China's rapid economic growth over the last 18 years, but it has been accompanied by increased inter-regional income inequality. Using the most recent rural income data and two alternative Gini coefficient decomposition methods, this study finds that income inequality, especially inter-regional income inequality increased significantly in the period 1986-92. More than half of national income inequality was due to its inter-provincial component, and three quarters of inter-provincial inequality was due to its inter-zonal component. Uneven development of township and village enterprises has been a major cause of increased regional income inequality.     

Approximation and decomposition of Gini, Pietra–Ricci and Theil inequality measures

Two related problems are dealt with in this article, concerning some popular inequality indices proposed by Gini, Pietra?CRicci and Theil: (1) the calculation of the index when only a frequency distribution is available, thus needing some kind of approximation; and (2) a reasonable decomposition of the index calculated for a mixture, with components related to ??within?? and ??between?? inequalities, and possibly to the separate contributions of each group to the overall inequality. Beside the proposals arising from the specific structure of each inequality index, a general approach for identifying the within component is utilized, which is based on the fixation of a given number of fictitious individuals (called aggregate units), common to every group. Regarding the Gini index, a general expression is obtained for the approximation problem, while the within inequality is more easily managed by the recourse to aggregate units. The decomposition of the Pietra?CRicci index displays three components, clearly ascribable to within inequality, to a mixture effect and to a mean effect. Regarding the Theil index, some simple and very accurate approximation formulae are obtained. An application of all the indices and their decompositions has been made for the 2004 income distribution for Italy (Bank of Italy Survey).     

Decomposing World Income Distribution: Does The World Have A Middle Class?

Using the national income/expenditure distribution data from 111 countries, we decompose total inequality between the individuals in the world, by continents and regions. We use Yitzhaki's Gini decomposition which allows for an exact breakdown of the Gini. We find that Asia is the most heterogeneous continent; between-country inequality is much more important than inequality in incomes within countries. At the other extreme is Latin America where differences between the countries are small, but inequalities within the countries are large. Western Europe/North America is fairly homogeneous both in terms of countries' mean incomes and income differences between individuals. If we divide the world population into three groups: the rich (those with incomes greater than Italy's mean income), the poor (those with incomes less than Western countries' poverty line), and the middle class, we find that there are only 11 percent of people who are "world middle class"; 78 percent are poor, and 11 percent are rich.     

Entropy-based China income distributions and inequality measures

ABSTRACT

We use information theoretic information recovery methods, on a 2005 sample of household income data from the Chinese InterCensus, to estimate the income distribution for China and each of its 31 provinces and to obtain corresponding measures of income inequality. Using entropy divergence methods, we seek a probability density function solution that is as close to a uniform probability distribution of income (with the least inequality), as the data will permit. These entropy measures of income inequality reflect how the allocation and distribution systems are performing, and we show the advantages of investigating province variation in income inequality using entropy measures rather than Gini coefficients. Finally, we use a sample of data from the China Family Panel Study to recover an estimate of the 2010 and the 2016 to investigate possible directions of inequality changes using these different additional data sources, given that the 2015 Inter-Census is not yet available.