The complementary nature of technological capabilities: Measurement and robustness issues

The application of composite indicators to complex phenomena in social science has come to remarkable prominence. As a result, they have been widely applied in wide-ranging fields. This paper explores the application of a composite indicator of technological capabilities that can be also valid for composite indicators in other fields. We focus on whether different methodologies to build composite indicators lead to different results. The arithmetic mean to aggregate technological capabilities variables has been widely criticized, as it allows for perfect substitutability between variables, thus disregarding the complementary nature of technological capabilities. We introduce a new aggregation rule, the concave mean, in order to take into account the complementarity argument in a Science-Technology-Innovation context. Using a dataset for 138 countries, we show that the arithmetic mean is biased in principle but robust in practice. This depends upon the fact that technologically more advanced countries tend to have a more complementary structure in their technological capabilities compared to less developed nations.     

The Dynamic ‘Diamond’: A Technological Innovation Perspective

A firm's local environment can constitute a source of national or regional cornpetitive advantage. An important question, therefore, is how these environments come about and how they can be lost. In this paper, we argue that a local environment is a function of the process of technological evolution. It is a function of how certain initial and prevailing conditions, the type of innovation, and chance events, influence the processes of uncertainty resolution, capabilities building, and survivor selection that are characteristic of technological evolution. We also argue that a region can lose its advantage when a dominant design emerges or when a technological discontinuity obsoletes the localized technological capabilities of not only manufacturers, but also of their suppliers, customers and related industries. The environment is dynamic as firms and nations, in response to their performances, also influence it by changing their strategies or policies.     

An approach to the construction of indexes of technological change and of technological sophistication : The case of agricultural tractors

Two indicators of the output of technological innovation have been developed for the case of agricultural tractors. The tractor is a multicharacteristic product, and a fundamental problem in measuring its technological sophistication or technological change is to determine the relative weights of different characteristics. These relative weights have been approximated by the coefficients of a regression of tractor price with respect to tractor technical characteristics. The indicators developed allow one to measure technical change over time or the relative technical sophistication of different tractor models or tractor firms at a given moment. These indicators can be applied only to multicharacteristic products with easily quantifiable characteristics. However, products that satisfy these requirements account for a very large share of the market for industrial goods. These indicators can be useful in assessing the efficiency of R&D, in analyzing the influence of technological innovation on patterns of trade, and in determining the contribution of changes in the quality of capital goods employed to increases in industrial productivity.     

Volumes of evidence: examining technical change in the last century through a new lens

Abstract New indicators of technical change based on titles included in the catalogue of the Library of Congress and on Amazon.com's website are presented along with evidence that they do capture technological innovation. The indicators are used to chart the pattern and nature of technical change over the last century. A strong, causal relationship is found to exist between these indicators and changes in TFP and output per capita. Moreover, innovations in some subgroups have had a greater impact on output and productivity than in others and the key players change over time. Information technologies are currently the dominant subgroup. JEL classificatiion: E32, O3, O4, N1     

Rethinking a National Innovation System: The Small Country as 'SME'

Most debates and discussions regarding trends towards globalization and localization, occur in the over-arching context of the knowledge economy, and focus on the impact of these trends on innovation and competitiveness in the 'Triad' of Europe, Japan and the USA. However, in the knowledge economy, competitiveness is increasingly based upon access to knowledge, in the form of skills and capabilities, wherever it is located in the world including the smaller industrialized countries. This paper extends the discussion of the impacts of globalization and localization to encompass other nations and their 'national innovation systems'. Policy underpinning national systems to encourage innovation is increasingly being called into question by the general move towards globalization and localization. Multi-national enterprises (MNEs) and localized clusters in the emerging technologies determine and control technological paths beyond and through national borders. Small industrialized nations which have neither a broad technological base, extensive science and technology infrastructure or resources, nor MNEs based in the country, run the risk of being marginalized when competing globally, through an inability to become involved in these international economic networks. A traditional policy response by small countries to the impact of globalization is to metaphorically 'batten down the hatches' against the invasion of MNEs and the exploitation of local resources. However, an exploration of the drivers of both globalization and localization in the knowledge economy, and the observed impacts of globalization on New Zealand, suggests that a suitable strategy for small nations might be the reverse scenario. By using the analogy of the small country as a small and medium sized enterprise (SME) in the global economy dominated by large nations and MNEs, SME advantages and disadvantages are mapped onto potential small country advantages and disadvantages. The simile is extended to propose a small-country strategy based on exploiting the documented advantages of SMEs, such as flexibility and use of external networks, for an outward-looking, supplier-orientated innovation policy. Such a policy has to be designed for rapid communication and flexibility, and has to encourage committed technological accumulation and networking, to maximize national absorptive and transformative capacities.     

高技术制造业创新效率评价及要素投入差异性研究

高技术制造业发展及竞争优势提升依赖于其技术创新能力。以高技术制造业下属行业为研究对象,运用DEA-Malmquist指数法分析高技术制造业每个行业动态效率变化值,并结合熵值法确定投入指标权重,采用灰色关联分析法深入研究各创新投入要素对产出的贡献度。结果表明：①我国高技术制造业在2014-2015年的全要素生产率最低,但整体上创新效率发展态势较好;②技术进步效率是影响全要素生产率变化的主要因素;③相同投入要素在不同行业中的贡献度差异较大,主要归因于指标投入强度及技术创新能力差异。     

Constructing Projects of National Development in Latin America?

Abstract

This article analyzes technology-related development in Latin America from a heterodox perspective based in Institutionalist and Structuralist Economics. Since the 1970s, the lack of systematic national projects designed to institutionalize endogenous innovation capabilities in the region has constituted a critical structural impediment to development. Eschewing the creation of public goods, most nations in Latin America abandoned important incipient efforts to develop technological autonomy as undertaken during the state-led industrialization period. This article highlights poorly understood but relatively successful aspects of the import substitution industrialization (ISI) strategy on technological advancement in the state-led era. Recently, neoliberalism's monolithic grip has been loosened. Brazil has undergone somewhat of a paradigmatic shift while advancing toward the creation of a national innovation system (NIS), thereby offering important lessons for other Latin American nations. Mexico, in contrast, shows no indication of attaining autonomous technological capabilities. The attainment of such capabilities in highly industrialized countries, and fast developing Asian nations, partially resulted from the construction of a NIS. The creation of a NIS embodies an interactive and interdependent process: it entails the joint and combined participation of scientists and others involved in research and development (R&D) activities in (1) the public and private sectors and (2) universities. These elements combine with agents of the state empowered to finance and coordinate the construction and maintenance of the NIS. The construction of a NIS has induced “increasing returns” in production processes. As Furtado emphasized, supply-enhancing technological capacity must be met by inclusive demand-enhancing policies that embed the vast underlying population in the growth process.     

Rethinking a National Innovation System: The Small Country as 'SME'

Most debates and discussions regarding trends towards globalization and localization, occur in the over-arching context of the knowledge economy, and focus on the impact of these trends on innovation and competitiveness in the 'Triad' of Europe, Japan and the USA. However, in the knowledge economy, competitiveness is increasingly based upon access to knowledge, in the form of skills and capabilities, wherever it is located in the world including the smaller industrialized countries. This paper extends the discussion of the impacts of globalization and localization to encompass other nations and their 'national innovation systems'. Policy underpinning national systems to encourage innovation is increasingly being called into question by the general move towards globalization and localization. Multi-national enterprises (MNEs) and localized clusters in the emerging technologies determine and control technological paths beyond and through national borders. Small industrialized nations which have neither a broad technological base, extensive science and technology infrastructure or resources, nor MNEs based in the country, run the risk of being marginalized when competing globally, through an inability to become involved in these international economic networks. A traditional policy response by small countries to the impact of globalization is to metaphorically 'batten down the hatches' against the invasion of MNEs and the exploitation of local resources. However, an exploration of the drivers of both globalization and localization in the knowledge economy, and the observed impacts of globalization on New Zealand, suggests that a suitable strategy for small nations might be the reverse scenario. By using the analogy of the small country as a small and medium sized enterprise (SME) in the global economy dominated by large nations and MNEs, SME advantages and disadvantages are mapped onto potential small country advantages and disadvantages. The simile is extended to propose a small-country strategy based on exploiting the documented advantages of SMEs, such as flexibility and use of external networks, for an outward-looking, supplier-orientated innovation policy. Such a policy has to be designed for rapid communication and flexibility, and has to encourage committed technological accumulation and networking, to maximize national absorptive and transformative capacities.     

The links between competitiveness, firms' innovative activities and public R&D support in Germany: an empirical analysis

Industrial competitiveness is becoming an increasingly important issue. In years of recession, some companies perform worse on domestic markets or lose export shares. Most investigations of the competitiveness of nations are based on macro-economic data. But a country is not much like a business. This paper tries to provide a new answer based on science and technology indicators and econometric analysis, Competitiveness is studied on the micro-economic level for a sample of 161 domestic or foreign-owned companies located in westem Germany. Zieir competitiveness is measured by two indicators: the trading result (i.e. either the net profit or loss) and the export share of (local) production. Statistics on investment and patents do not sufficiently explain competitiveness, but the scientfic potential of the firms significantly explains the competitiveness, but, it seems to be the science base of technological activities that determines competitiveness. Public subventions facilitate scientific and technological activities in industry. It is particularly interesting to note that government support is oriented towards the science base of the client companies.     

Technological development and rates of return to investment in a catching-up economy: the case of South Korea

Technological change has been the key driving force in the growth spurt of East Asia in the past decades. Assimilation theorists stress the importance of building up technological capabilities and demonstrate the dynamic processes of technology assimilation and learning, which have taken place through case-studies. However, especially after the Asian financial crisis, it can be argued that it is not enough to show that firms have increased their technological competencies. It is also important to assess the economic returns to the pecuniary investment flows linked with these learning processes. The main idea put forward in this paper is that investment in technology is necessary to maintain rates of return to physical capital investment, and that this is increasingly difficult, the closer a country gets to the global technology frontier. This idea finds support in an analysis of the development of four technology-intensive industries in South Korea, using technology investment indicators such as foreign direct investment, R&D expenditures and technology licensing fees. The results suggest that a strategy of technological diversification might generate higher returns to investment than a pre-occupied search for industrial leadership.     

Intra-Industry Gaps in Technology and Investments in Technological Capabilities: Firm-level evidence from Chile

This paper develops a theoretical framework to analyse intra-industry gaps in technology, and tests it with enterprise-level data from a developing country. Following neoclassical theory, the existence of inter-firm technological gaps is explained by factor market segmentation that determines different factor prices and therefore different firms' technological choices. However, intra-industry gaps in technology may also result from the nature of the process of technological development, and from the different level of investments in technological capabilities.The empirical analysis is based on a sample of 338 industrial enterprises from Chile, and shows that it is possible to define technological thresholds, characterised by significant shifts in technology, independently of factor market segmentation. The analysis focuses on five major sectors: food processing, textile and garments, woodworking, metalworking and paper. Firms with different levels of technological complexity coexist within the same industry, and differences in technology are discrete, with different clusters sharing similar characteristics within the same industry. These results also have important policy implications for industrial development, which are drawn in a final section.     

Democratization is the driving force for technological and economic change

The purpose of this paper is to analyze the relationship between democratization and technological innovation. In primis, the paper shows, through economic history, that democratization is an antecedent process (cause) to technological and economic change (effect). In particular, the primary finding is that democratization is a driving force for technological change: most free countries, measured with liberal, participatory, and constitutional democracy indices, have a higher level of technology than less free and more autocratic countries. In fact, “democracy richness” generates a higher rate of technological innovation with fruitful effects for the wellbeing and wealth of nations. These findings and predictions lead to the conclusion that policy makers need to be cognizant of positive associations between democratization and technological innovation paths in order to support the modern economic growth and future technological progress of countries.     

基于因子分析法的大中型工业企业技术创新能力评价

构建了大中型工业企业技术创新能力评价指标体系,利用因子分析方法找出影响大中型工业企业技术创新能力的关键因素,将其归为内部创新因子和外部创新因子,建立了大中型工业企业技术创新能力评价模型。利用2009年国内大中型工业企业R&D及相关活动的主要指标数据,对不同所有制类型的大中型工业企业的技术创新能力进行评价。研究结果表明:企业办科技机构数量和消化吸收经费支出对内部创新因子的贡献最大;有限责任公司、股份有限公司和外商投资企业在技术创新能力得分上的排名在各类型大中型工业企业中居前三位。     

Identifying technological capabilities with different degrees of coherence: The challenge to achieve high technological sophistication in latecomer software companies (based on the Bulgarian case)

The paper introduces the notion of coherence of technological capabilities. It argues that in analysing technological capabilities (TC) the analysis needs to go beyond investigation of constituent capabilities and should take into account the level of coherence among the constituent capabilities. The phenomenon of different degree of coherence of TC is detected while exploring the TC in Bulgarian software companies. Significant differences emerge between the TC of domestic-oriented vs. export-driven companies in the accumulation of constituent capabilities. But it is the analysis of the coherence of TC, which proved capable to capture the real differences in capability accumulation: strong coherence occurs only in ‘export’ TC. This analysis revives the debate about possibilities for leapfrogging by latecomers by developing software industries. Based on the results the study revises the ‘walking on two legs’ hypothesis and also points that the optimistic forecasts about the possibilities for leapfrogging by the latecomer countries by developing indigenous software industries might have been overestimated.     

The semiconductor silicon industry roadmap: Epochs driven by the dynamics between disruptive technologies and core competencies

The resource-based perspective has done much to identify idiosyncratic firm attributes that may be a principal source of competitive advantages. Unfortunately, there has been little systematic industry evidence to support the strategic importance of core competence, nor has there been much work on the temporal or cumulative nature of core capabilities within an industrial setting. Further, little or no research has been performed demonstrating how the advent of technological discontinuities or disruptive technologies plays a part in creating epochs in technology competency development and the roadmap of an industry. In this study, we analyze the evolutionary and cumulative nature of core capabilities and their interactions with technological discontinuities from a market-driven perspective. We have studied the evolution of 167 firms through the 50-year history of the semiconductor silicon industry. Over time, there were several structural shifts in the necessary competencies through the advent of disruptive technologies. In the last 30 years, however, the change in the required competencies has been more cumulative in nature. We summarize this in a roadmap detailing the epochs in the semiconductor silicon industry.     

中国特色世界一流大学建设背景下高校科技创新能力评价研究

在中国特色社会主义进入新时代的历史节点,习近平总书记多次发出建设中国特色世界一流大学的号召,研究高校科技创新能力有助于探索中国特色世界一流大学建设。基于资源配置理论,从科技创新资源条件、科技创新资源投入、科技创新活力和科技创新产出效益4个方面构建高校科技创新能力评价指标体系,并利用2010—2020年中国高校数据,从科技创新视角分析如何建设中国特色世界一流大学。结果发现,中国高校科技创新能力整体处于上升趋势,高校科技创新能力发展呈现区域性、阶段性和差异性特征;科技创新产出效益对高校科技创新能力的影响较大,而科技创新活力的影响较小;资本因素对科技创新能力的影响较大,而人才因素的影响较小。因此,中国高校应该重视优秀人才培养,参与国际交流和社会服务。研究结论有助于丰富新时代背景下高校科技创新能力研究,为中国特色世界一流大学建设提供参考依据。     

消费结构升级、政府支持与区域科技创新能力：空间视角下的分析

基于2009-2018年中国省级空间面板数据，运用空间杜宾模型,重点分析了空间视角下消费结构升级、政府支持与科技创新能力的多重关系。研究发现：①当前我国消费结构升级与区域科技创新能力呈现U型关系，即在消费结构处于较低阶段时，其与科技创新能力提升呈负相关关系，而当消费结构升级到一定高度，这种负向关系转变为正向关系；②政府支持与科技创新能力呈现倒U型关系，即当科技创新水平较低时，政府支持有利于科技创新能力提升，当科技创新能力发展到一定程度后，政府支持开始成为制约因素。在考虑发现①的基础上，可以认为政府支持下呈现的倒U型曲线与消费取向的阶段性变化密切相关，即当消费结构处于较低阶段时政府支持发挥了弥补市场不足的作用，而当消费市场转向有利于创新发展时，过度的政府支持会对自由市场产生挤出效应，从而不利于创新能力发展；③在空间溢出上，地理距离矩阵下呈现出与发现①和发现②相似的关系，经济距离矩阵下呈现出与发现②相似的关系。     

产业协同集聚对经济高质量发展的影响

以创新能力为中介变量,剖析产业协同集聚对经济高质量发展的影响机理,构建门槛效应模型,收集2005—2019年中国内地30个省市区产业协同集聚、创新能力、经济高质量发展相关数据,准确测度产业协同集聚及其通过创新能力对经济高质量发展的影响效应,运用Arcgis软件对产业协同集聚水平进行可视化分析。结果表明,我国产业协同集聚呈现不均衡特征,在空间上,除西部协同集聚区（四川、重庆、贵州、陕西）外,呈现东高西低、沿海高内陆低的特征,马太效应显著;在时间上,呈现四足鼎立的演化趋势。依据自身产业协同集聚与经济高质量发展的协同性水平,各省可采取协同集聚与经济高质量维持型、协同集聚与经济高质量加强型、协同集聚度加强型、经济高质量加强型的差异化策略。产业协同集聚对创新能力和经济高质量发展都存在双门槛效应,影响效应边际递减。     

Knowledge positions in high-tech markets: Trajectories,standards, strategies and true innovators

Essential patents refer to patents that are indispensable in order to make any product that complies with a technological standard. Portfolios of essential patents have often been used to indicate the strategic value of a firm's knowledge. We propose a range of alternative indicators based on a firm's position in patent citation network. Using a historical narrative and the actual licencing payments for the 3G W-CDMA standard in mobile telecommunications as a reference, we find that our alternative indicators provide better indicators for firms' knowledge positions and their long-term impact on technological change. Our proposed indicators can also be applied in markets that are not based on standards, and may not only be valuable to scholars but also to practitioners. Our findings also raise some concern over technology inclusion processes at standards bodies, and we recommend policy makers to consider our proposed method in order to critically look at these processes.     

中国国防工业全要素生产率测算与分析

利用2004—2020年中国11大军工集团财务报表数据，从企业微观角度出发，运用LP方法计算国防工业全要素生产率并分析其变化趋势。结果表明，样本期内，我国国防工业全要素生产率总体呈波动上升趋势，其增长率高于制造业整体水平但低于高技术产业增速，说明国防工业技术进步比较明显，但进步速率还不够高；各细分军工行业全要素生产率存在较大差异，电子工业和船舶工业全要素生产率均值比其它军工行业高。收敛性分析表明，国防工业中，全要素生产率较低企业对较高企业具有追赶效应。建议军工行业必须转变增长方式，向集约型发展方式转变，提高发展质量；加大研发投入力度，重点扶持技术发展相对缓慢的行业，促进军工行业协调发展；贯彻军民融合发展战略，促进先进民用技术转军用。