Resource use efficiency under self‐selectivity: the case of Bangladeshi rice producers

The paper jointly evaluates the determinants of switching to modern rice and its productivity while allowing for production inefficiency at the level of individual producers. Model diagnostics reveal that serious selection bias exists, justifying the use of a sample selection framework in stochastic frontier models. Results revealed that modern variety selection decisions are influenced positively by the availability of irrigation and gross return from rice and negatively by a rise in the relative wage of labour. Adoption of modern rice is higher in underdeveloped regions. Seasonality and geography/location does matter in adoption decisions. Stochastic production frontier results reveal that land, labour and irrigation are the significant determinants of modern rice productivity. Decreasing returns to scale prevail in modern rice production. The mean level of technical efficiency (MTE) is estimated at 0.82. Results also demonstrate that the conventional stochastic frontier model significantly overestimates inefficiency by three points (MTE = 0.79). Policy implications include measures to increase access to irrigation, tenurial reform and keeping rice prices high to boost farm returns and offset the impact of a rise in the labour wage which will synergistically increase the adoption of modern rice as well as farm productivity.     

Production Efficiency of Jasmine Rice Producers in Northern and North‐eastern Thailand

The paper jointly evaluates the determinants of switching to Jasmine rice and its productivity while allowing for production inefficiency at the level of individual producers. Model diagnostics reveal that serious selection bias exists, justifying use of a sample selection framework in stochastic frontier models. Results from the probit variety selection equation reveal that gross return (mainly powered by significantly higher Jasmine rice price), access to irrigation and education are the important determinants of choosing Jasmine rice. Results from the stochastic production frontier reveal that land, irrigation and fertilisers are the significant determinants of Jasmine rice productivity. Significantly lower productivity in Phitsanulok and Tung Gula Rong Hai provinces demonstrate the influence of biophysical and environmental factors on productivity performance. The mean level of technical efficiency is estimated at 0.63 suggesting that 59% [(100 ? 63)/63] of the productivity is lost due to technical inefficiency. Policy implications include measures to keep Jasmine rice price high, increase access to irrigation and fertiliser availability, as well as investment in education targeted to farm households which will synergistically increase adoption of Jasmine rice as well as farm productivity.     

Effect of modern rice varieties and irrigation on household income distribution in Nepalese villages

Since high-yielding modern rice varieties (MVs) are adopted only in favorable production environments, significant regional productivity differentials have emerged in Nepal. This study explores the distributional consequences of such differential MV adoption based on an intensive survey of favorable and unfavorable villages. We found that MV adoption increased returns to land but decreased family labor earnings from rice production, as it facilitated the substitution of hired for family labor. As a result, the differential MV adoption did not significantly worsen the household income distribution according to the results of the counterfactual Gini decomposition analysis.     

Women’s Labour Contribution to Productivity and Efficiency in Agriculture: Empirical Evidence From Bangladesh

This article examines the contribution of women’s labour input to productivity and efficiency in crop farming using a large survey dataset of 1,839 households from 16 villages in two agro‐ecological regions of Bangladesh. Results reveal that female labour accounts for a substantial 28% of total labour use (mainly supplied from the family) and contributes significantly to productivity as well as technical efficiency. Contrary to expectation, the cost share of female labour input is significantly higher than the male share, and has a substitution relationship with all other inputs, including male labour. The estimated mean level of technical efficiency is 0.90, implying that crop output might be increased by 10% by eliminating technical inefficiency. Both male and female education have a significant impact on improving technical efficiency. Other significant technical efficiency shifters are farming experience, family size and crop diversification. Owner operators are found to be technically inefficient relative to the tenants. Policy implications include creation of a hired labour market for female labour so that more women can be involved in the production process, and can contribute to towards improving productivity and efficiency. In addition, investment in education for both men and women, strategies to promote crop diversification and effective regulation/modification of the tenancy market will significantly improve technical efficiency in this case.     

Determinants of efficiency of vegetable production in smallholder farms: The case of Ethiopia

Improving production efficiency remains as a plausible means of increasing productivity when resource reallocation, and the creation and adoption of new technologies are limited. Technical, allocative and economic efficiencies are derived from a sample of smallholder vegetable farmers in Ethiopia using parametric and non-parametric methods. The results reveal that the two methods yield similar estimates and the existence of substantial inefficiencies in production as well as efficiency differentials among farmers. The analysis of the determinants of efficiency of vegetable production using regression models show that low asset ownership, illiteracy, large family size, inadequate extension contacts, small farm size, age, low off/non-farm income and high consumer spending are the major socio-economic factors causing inefficiency of vegetable production in the study areas. A comparison of the market-driven (vegetables) with the whole-farm (crops and livestock) production efficiency indicates that lower economic efficiency scores for the former might be related to the limited access to capital markets, high consumer spending, and large family size.     

Modern Rice Technologies and Productivity in the Philippines: Disentangling Technology from Managerial Gaps

Using cross‐sectional farm‐level data from 3,164 rice‐farming households in the Philippines, we measure the impact of modern rice technologies on farm productivity while disentangling technology gaps (the distance between production frontiers) from managerial gaps (differences in technical efficiency). To do so, we combine a recently developed stochastic production frontier framework with impact evaluation techniques to control for biases stemming from observables and unobservables. First, we find an adequate control group using propensity score matching to mitigate the effect of biases from observable variables. Then, we test for biases that might arise from unobserved variables using a stochastic frontier framework corrected for self‐selection. Finally, we estimate meta‐frontiers to assess productivity differences between adopters and non‐adopters. The analysis shows that the adoption of certified seeds has a significant and positive impact on productivity, efficiency and net income in rice farming.     

Eco‐efficiency of high‐yielding variety rice cultivation after accounting for on‐farm environmental damage as an undesirable output: an empirical analysis from Bangladesh

This study computes the eco‐efficiency of high‐yielding variety (HYV) rice production by including an on‐farm environmental damage index (OFEDI) as an undesirable output using data envelopment analysis. It then identifies its determinants by applying an interval regression procedure on a sample of 317 farmers from north‐western Bangladesh. Results reveal that the mean level of the OFEDI‐adjusted production efficiency (i.e. eco‐efficiency) is 89 per cent, whereas ignoring OFEDI adjustment (i.e. with OFEDI = 0) reduces the mean level of efficiency to 69 per cent, implying that the production of undesirable output or on‐farm environmental damage induces an efficiency loss of 20 per cent with significant differences across regions. The proportion of farmers’ income from HYV rice agriculture, land ownership, extension services and socio‐environmental living standard are the significant determinants of improving eco‐efficiency. Policy implications include investments in extension services and land reform measures to increase land ownership, which will synergistically improve eco‐efficiency of HYV rice production in Bangladesh.     

The distribution of returns from land efficiency improvement in multistage production systems

This paper assesses the distributional consequences of technical changes that improve the efficiency of land and of other inputs in a multifactor crop‐production system. We introduced an equilibrium displacement model (EDM) by using the specification of a factor‐augmenting approach. Given the uncertainty about the EDM parameters, a Monte Carlo simulation is used to produce a distribution of possible return measures. We found that land suppliers (likely farmers) receive a larger share (73%) of total benefits from the adoption of land‐technical change than they do from the adoption of other input technologies. Each input supplier receives a larger share of total benefits from technical change in her own input. However, this result is sensitive to the value of the parameters, especially the value of the elasticity of substitution. We applied the EDM to the case of no‐tillage (NT) to provide insight into how the aggregate return from the adoption of NT was distributed among different groups on the Canadian Prairies. The results of this study can be used by policymakers and funding agencies in order to influence landowners and farming communities to adopt environmentally sound land technologies to achieve both greater agricultural productivity and sustainability.     

Mechanization in land preparation and agricultural intensification: The case of rice farming in the Cote d'Ivoire

It is critically important to intensify farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa by disseminating improved agronomic practices and increasing the application of modern inputs. One of the region's problems is that proper land preparation is difficult due to the scarcity of draft animals and the underdevelopment of the tractor rental market. Our analysis of rice production in the Cote d'Ivoire reveals that farmers who use tractors in land preparation more intensively apply fertilizer and use more labor to carefully implement proper agronomic practices, thereby raising productivity. Thus, the diffusion of tractors appears to be key to the intensification of rice farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa.     

Technical efficiency in the Spanish agrofood industry

This study estimates frontier production functions with cross-section data lor the Spanish agrofood industry by using deterministic and stochastic parameuic approaches. We compute the individual technical efficiency for each firm, compare the results and explain the relationship between technical efficiency and other relevant quantitative variables. The results indicate that the Spanish agrofood industry has a level of efficiency between 68% and 93%; which means that it is potentially capable of increasing production without increasing its Consumption of inputs. This efficiency level is positively related to factor productivity and unitary labour costs.     

土地细碎化、多样化种植与农业生产技术效率--基于随机前沿生产函数和中介效应模型的实证研究

本文基于安徽省农村固定观察点2013—2017年农户层面的面板数据,使用效率时变型随机前沿生产函数模型对农业生产技术效率进行测算,并利用中介效应模型分析了土地细碎化对农业生产技术效率的直接效应以及通过农户多样化种植行为传导的中介效应。研究结果显示:(1)样本农户的平均生产技术效率为0.386%,效率损失较为严重;(2)土地细碎化对农业生产技术效率存在"倒U"型的直接效应;(3)多样化种植在土地细碎化对农业生产技术效率的影响中发挥了非线性的中介效应,土地细碎化与农户多样化种植行为存在"倒U"型关系,多样化种植程度与农业生产技术效率存在"U"型关系。在我国农业劳动力短缺和老龄化压力日趋严重的背景下,为提高农业生产效率,应从促进土地相对集中和支持开展专业化生产两个方面加大政策支持力度。     

水足迹视角下三江平原地区农业水土资源配置效率研究

[目的]三江平原地区是我国重要的商品粮基地,其农业水土资源相对丰富但水土资源配置效率不佳,亟待改善。[方法]运用投入导向型数据包络分析(DEA)方法,对水足迹视角下的三江平原地区农业水土资源配置效率进行评价。[结果]2015年,三江平原地区农业水土资源配置综合有效的地区仅占5%,总体来看,农业水土资源配置的技术效率略好于规模效率;水土资源投入冗余状况分析表明,友谊县、虎林市、宝清县、汤原县、富锦市、同江市等8个县、市辖区的农业水土资源投入合理,其他地区都存在不同程度的冗余现象;分作物来看,水稻生产的水土资源配置技术效率高于其他三大旱作。[结论]完善农业基础设施配套工程,提高水土资源配置的技术效率,是提高其规模效率,进而实现综合有效的关键。     

Socioeconomic aspects of rice‐fish farming in Bangladesh: opportunities,challenges and production efficiency*

In spite of the potential for rice‐fish farming in Bangladesh, it has been adopted by relatively few farmers because of socioeconomic, environmental, technological and institutional constraints. Rice monoculture remains the main farming system in Bangladesh even though integrated rice‐fish farming is the best farming system in terms of resource utilisation, diversity, productivity, production efficiency and food supply. Only a small number of farmers involve in integrated rice‐fish farming. This study concludes that rice‐fish farming is as production efficient as rice monoculture and that integrated performs better in terms of cost and technical efficiency compared with alternate rice‐fish farming. Integrated rice‐fish farming can help Bangladesh keep pace with the current demand for food through rice and fish production. However, a lack of technical knowledge of farmers, high production costs and risks associated with flood and drought are inhibiting more widespread adoption of the practice.     

土地利用效率影响因素分析——基于湖北的调查

在水土流失严重、非农建设用地不断扩张以及可供开发利用的土地后备资源匮乏的大背景下,农业生产用地的有效使用成为当务之急。本文以复种指数、土地生产率、资金投入产出率和劳动力投入产出率等作为测度土地利用效率的指标,着重分析了土地细碎化和农户兼业等因素的影响。依据湖北省农村的随机抽样数据,实证分析得到的结论表明,土地细碎化对土地利用效率产生影响,在统计意义上不明显;农户兼业对复种指数的作用为正,对资金投入产出率的作用为负,对土地生产率和劳动力投入产出率的作用不显著;传统循环农业模式有利于提高土地利用效率。为此,本文提出必须毫不犹豫地坚持土地家庭承包经营方式不动摇;进一步加大"三农"投入力度;加快工业化和城镇化步伐,推动农村剩余劳动力尽快转移;大力扶持循环农业发展模式。     

The costs and benefits of land fragmentation of rice farms in Japan*

Land fragmentation, in which a farm operates multiple, separate plots of land, is a common phenomenon in Japan and many other countries. Usually, land fragmentation is regarded as a harmful phenomenon as it increases production costs and reduces the advantages of scale economies. However, it is also known that fragmentation may have beneficial effects in reducing risk through spatial dispersion of plots. Thus, land fragmentation has both costs and benefits, and whether it is beneficial or harmful is determined by the magnitude of these costs and benefits. This article investigates the costs and benefits of land fragmentation empirically using panel data from Japanese rice farms. The empirical results reveal that fragmentation increases production costs and offsets economies of size, and these impacts strengthen as farm size increases. Moreover, although fragmentation does reduce production risk, its monetary value is far below the cost of land fragmentation. From these findings, we conclude that land fragmentation is an impediment to efficient rice production in Japan.     

Market Analysis,Technical Change and Income Distribution in Semi-Subsistence Agriculture: the Case of Bangladesh

For the first time, the model developed by Hayami and Herdt is applied to determine gains from modern varieties of rice in Bangladesh and the distribution of these gains between consumers and producers. The results suggest that consumers' surplus is much greater than it would have been had the high yielding crop varieties (HYVs) not been introduced. By keeping the real price lower than it would have been otherwise, the modern varieties have tended to be income equalizing for urban consumers. The Hayami-Herdt partial model even suggests that, given the relatively inelastic demand for rice in Bangladesh, the real cash income of producers has risen slightly as a result of these new technologies. In reality, however, the impact of these changes on incomes of farmers and the distribution of income between those involved in production is more complex. It is suggested that if a less partial view is taken and if account is taken of lower cost of obtaining home-consumed produce, the increase in income may be greater. In any event, there are dangers in using such a partial model to predict the developmental consequences of technological changes affecting a staple crop, and attention needs also to be given to the possibility that the supply curve may not have the simple form and pivot in the way supposed by Hayami and Herdt. While the Hayami-Herdt model is simple to apply, it is best used as a first approximation or starting point rather than a final solution. It ignores a number of criteria that could be important in assessing new agricultural technologies, such as their impact on the variability of benefits to producers and consumers and their consequences for sustainability of production. Furthermore, the Hayami-Herdt model does not deal specifically with changes in factor shares in farm production. Nor does it consider the impact on income distribution of the ownership and control of critical input like irrigation and imperfection in the rural credit market. It is pointed out in our paper that the adoption of HYVs has been associated with important variations in factor shares in Bangladeshi rice production. Analysis of available farm level data indicates that the relative share of labour has fallen, suggesting an uneven distribution of gains from technological changes between the owners of non-labour resources and those of labour resources. However, the absolute share of labour has increased, and it seems that rural employment has risen as result of the new technologies.     

典型家庭农场组织化程度对生产效率的影响分析

现阶段中国农业生产仍属于高投入、低效率的粗放模式,粮食安全缺乏可持续性。研究不同规模下不同组织形式的家庭农场生产效率,有助于揭示在中国农业高质量发展阶段中通过转变农业经营组织形式提高粮食生产效率,保障国家粮食安全的新路径。本文利用湖北武汉、安徽郎溪等地家庭农场的问卷调查数据,采用三阶段DEA方法比较纯种植与种养结合两类典型家庭农场的全要素生产率和水稻生产效率差异,并探讨农业生产效率的影响因素和水稻的适度经营规模。结果显示,家庭农场的全要素生产率和水稻生产效率都有较大的提升空间。不论是全要素生产率、水稻生产效率还是要素投入效率,种养结合农场总体高于纯种植农场。随着经营规模的扩大,种养结合农场中合理组织化对水稻生产效率的提升作用超过了纯种植农场中的专业化作用,其具有高单产、少物耗、轻污染、低成本、抗风险等优点,充分符合国家的"藏粮于技"战略,应受到积极鼓励和广泛推广。经营规模扩张对家庭农场生产效率的影响作用较为复杂,并不完全是线性的,应基于家庭和生产实际,合理确定家庭农场经营规模,走适度规模经营之路。     

Productivity and efficiency impact of climate change and agroecology on Bangladesh agriculture

The paper estimates the impacts of climate change, agroecological and socio-economic characteristics on agricultural productivity and efficiency changes in Bangladesh agriculture using a rich panel dataset of 17 regions covering a period of 61-years (1948–2008). Results revealed that land has the most dominant role in increasing agricultural production followed by labour and irrigation. The contribution of non-cereal crops (i.e., potatoes, pulses, oilseeds, jute and cash crops) to total production are also significant, ranging from 2 to 8% per annum. An increase in annual-rainfall and long-term-temperature (LTT) significantly enhance production. Production is significantly higher in floodplain agroecologies. However, production efficiency fluctuated sharply and declined overtime. The mean efficiency score of 0.74 implies substantial room to improve production by resource reallocation. Average farm size, crop specialization and investment in R&D significantly improve efficiency whereas increases in annual temperature-variability and LTT significantly reduce efficiency. Efficiency is significantly lower in low-lying floodplain and coastal-plain agroecologies. Policy implications include investments in diversifying cropping portfolio into other cereals (i.e., wheat and maize), research to develop crop varieties suited to changing climatic conditions and specific agroecological regions, and land/tenurial reforms to consolidate farm size to enhance productivity and efficiency of Bangladesh agriculture.     

Labour,nature, and exploitation: Social metabolism and inequality in a farming community in mid‐19th century Catalonia

Exploiting the labour of other people has historically been one of the main strategies to tackle the biophysical tension that always exists between the satisfaction of human needs and the labour required to fulfil them. Based on the insights of ecological, feminist, and Marxist economics, we disentangle the exploitation of the labour of women and labouring poor through a novel methodology that integrates energy, material, time, and cash balances. We apply it to the sociometabolic flows between household units endowed with different land and livestock resources in a traditional rural community in Catalonia (Spain) in the mid‐19th century. The results show that land and livestock hoarding led to a process of accumulation through dispossession that increased the exploitative relationships through the labour market, which in turn relied on the patriarchal division of labour between men and women at home. Our estimates of energy labour surplus reveal that male wages represented 88% of the equivalent consumption basket that would have been obtained by carrying out the same amount of labour on land of one's own. However, in the case of female wages, the percentage was 54%. This shows that wage labour incorporated a significant amount of unpaid domestic family labour.     

Productivity improvement in Korean rice farming: parametric and non‐parametric analysis†

The published empirical literature on frontier production functions is dominated by two broadly defined estimation approaches – parametric and non‐parametric. Using panel data on Korean rice production, parametric and non‐parametric production frontiers are estimated and compared with estimated productivity. The non‐parametric approach employs two alternative measures based on the Malmquist index and the Luenberger indicator, while the parametric approach is closely related to the time‐variant efficiency model. Productivity measures differ considerably between these approaches. It is discovered that measures of efficiency change are more sensitive to the choice of the model than are measures of technical change. Both approaches reveal that the main sources of growth in Korean rice farming have been technical change and productivity improvements in regions of the country that have been associated with low efficiency.