Extending corporate accountability: A survey and framework for analysis

This paper has three objectives: to review the state of the art with regard to the literature on corporate internal audit activities; to report on a research study of recent developments in the scope and organization of the internal audit function in major companies in U.S.A.; and to propose an analytical framework which may be used in future research to describe the scope, procedures and responsibilities of the corporate internal audit function. Although there appears to be some confusion in the extant literature regarding the definition and scope of certain internal audit efforts, this research provides new evidence that major U.S. companies are engaging in unprecedented experiments into the use of auditing as a tool for enforcing management and social accountability. This is a movement away from the traditional financial audit which is frequently assumed to fully circumscribe the internal audit function. The implications for implementing heightened standards of corporate accountability should be of interest to audit committees of boards of directors, corporate management, investors, consumers, and future researchers.     

浅议如何提高商业银行内部审计质量管理水平

商业银行内审部门要达到持续取得审计成果,增加商业银行价值的目标,就必须持续提高内部审计质量管理水平,通过对商业银行价值创造性审计管理刚刚起步、风险评估技术和流程提升空间巨大、审计报告风险反映的全面性和形式有待完善、跟踪审计整改标准和机制形式重于实质等现状进行分析,提出提高服务意识、加强政策导向、完善审计规范,提高审计计划风险评估技术和建立审计项目的风险评估流程,全面反映风险和拓展报告形式,制定分类整改标准、完善系统性整改机制、修正整改考核体制的改进思路。     

An Audit Framework for Expert Systems

Expert systems moved from research laboratories to widespread use in the business world during the previous decade. Current data indicate that use will continue to increase in the foreseeable future. However, auditors have not comprehensively addressed the need for and feasibility of independent audits of these systems. This paper discusses factors that will soon create a demand for independent audits of expert systems. It then identifies a framework present in current professional standards that appears to be appropriate for proceeding with the auditing of expert systems. A hypothetical case is subsequently presented to illustrate one possibility of how measurement criteria, audit procedures and an audit report developed under these professional standards might appear. Potential practice problems and research issues are identified throughout the paper.     

Bayesian Inference in Auditing: Evidence on the Most Appropriate Assessment Techniques

Interest in the use of the Bayesian statistical method in auditing has been increasing over the past few years. To use this method, however, appropriate prior probability assessment techniques (PPAT) need to be identified. This study uses three evaluation criteria, acceptability, accuracy and concordance, to compare four PPATs in auditing. The four PPATs compared are cumulative distribution function (CDF), probability density function (PDF), equivalent prior sample information (EPS), and hypothetical future samples (HFS). Seventy-three practising auditors were trained to use these four PPATs in their task of compliance error quantification in an audit case study. Results indicate that PDF is the most appropriate PPAT and EPS the least appropriate PPAT for use in practical audit situations. CDF and HFS were in the middle with no clear difference between them. Implications for audit practice and research are discussed.     

Embedding process mining into financial statement audits

The audit of financial statements is a complex and highly specialized process. Digitalization and the increasing automation of transaction processing create new challenges for auditors who carry out those audits. New data analysis techniques offer the opportunity to improve the auditing of financial statements and to overcome the limitations of traditional audit procedures when faced with increasingly large amounts of financially relevant transactions that are processed automatically or semi-automatically by computer systems. This study discusses process mining as a novel data analysis technique which has been receiving increased attention in the audit practice. Process mining makes it possible to analyse business processes in an automated manner. This study investigates how process mining can be integrated into contemporary audits by reviewing the relevant audit standards and incorporating the results from a field study. It demonstrates the feasibility of embodying process mining within financial statement audits in accordance with contemporary audit standards and generally accepted audit practices. Implementation of process mining increases the reliability of the audit conclusions and improves the robustness of audit evidence by replacing manual audit procedures. Process mining as novel data mining technique provides auditors the means to keep pace with current technological developments and challenges.     

Multiple hypothesis evaluation in auditing

In many audit tasks, auditors evaluate multiple hypotheses to diagnose the situation. Research suggests this is a complex task that individuals have difficulty performing. Further, there is little guidance in professional standards or literature dealing with the many complexities present in the audit environment. Using probability theory, this study derives the appropriate revision of likelihoods for multiple hypotheses given different realistic audit conditions. The analysis shows that the relationships among the hypotheses dramatically impact the use of audit evidence and the resulting pattern of probability revisions. We also identify testable hypotheses to guide future research and discuss practice implications regarding ways to improve the effectiveness of analytical procedures.     

Panel Cointegration Analysis of Audit Pricing Model

This paper addresses two issues that arise from testing and estimating cointegration in accounting research. The first issue is the failure to use more powerful cointegration tests by earlier researchers. This has led to the problem of low test power in the cointegration procedures employed in the earlier accounting literature. Another issue that has not received much attention in earlier studies of audit pricing is the endogeneity bias that arises from the endogenous nature of the regressors. Commonly used regressors such as auditee size and auditee complexity are endogenous and are often related to audit fees through a system of simultaneous equations. Endogeneity bias suggests that the conventional OLS estimators are biased.Using more powerful panel sample estimation procedures, we find that elasticities of total assets are in general under-estimated in the earlier studies when the conventional OLS method was used. We also find that the earlier studies tend to under-state the effects of the foreign subsidiary ratio and over-state the effect of the ratio of account receivables to total assets on audit fees.JEL Classification: C33, M41     

Bayesian Fraud Risk Formula for Financial Statement Audits

In this article we extend the work of Loebbecke et al. (1989 ) and illustrate the use of an evidential reasoning approach for developing fraud risk analysis models under the Bayesian framework. New formulations facilitating fraud risk assessments are needed because decision tree approaches previously used to develop analytical models are not appropriate in complex situations involving several interrelated variables. To demonstrate the evidential reasoning approach, a fraud risk assessment formula is derived and illustrated. The fraud risk formula captures the impact of the presence or absence of and interrelationships between the three ‘fraud triangle’ risk factors: Incentives, Attitude and Opportunities. The formula includes the impact of risks and controls related to these three fraud risk factors as well as the impact of forensic audit procedures and relevant analytical and other procedures that provide evidence for the presence or absence of fraud. This formula may be used in audit practice both to help plan the audit and to assess fraud risk sequentially as audit evidence is obtained.     

The use of analytical procedures by external auditors in Canada

The Enron debacle and other scandals highlight the issue of whether analytical procedures (APs) or more traditional audit approaches based on substantive testing are more appropriate. This paper surveys the use of APs by Canadian external auditors and augments understanding of the impact of auditing standards on professional practice. Our results demonstrate that APs are extensively applied in practice, particularly by larger firms, and that their use dominates the final review stage of the audit regardless of firm size. While standards do not appear to be an important influence upon practice for audit firms in general, this is not the case for smaller firms. Though auditors place more reliance on APs to reduce tests of detail, there are limits to this reliance. Our results indicate that while auditors may have increased their use of APs with the expectation of efficiency gains, these may be realized at present only partially.     

An examination of contextual factors and individual characteristics affecting technology implementation decisions in auditing

While computer-assisted audit techniques (CAATs) have the potential to increase efficiency and effectiveness of audit engagements, research in this area suggests that such techniques are under-utilized in public accounting. We propose that this condition is due to performance evaluation pressure and the use of budgets for multiple purposes, which result in the misalignment of firm and individual employee goals. We apply technology acceptance and budgeting theories to test this contention as well as potential organizational strategies for reducing the impediments to technology acceptance in the audit profession.Results from an experiment with experienced auditors suggest that firms have the ability to influence the implementation of new technology by using longer-term budget and evaluation periods and by communicating the approval of remote superiors regarding the software. In the absence of such firm interventions, the individual characteristics of the auditor (risk-aversion and perceptions of budgetary pressure) determine implementation decisions. Specifically, risk-seeking individuals are more likely to implement technology regardless of budget pressure perception, but for risk-averse individuals the decision to implement is positively related to perceived budget pressure.     

Human Information Processing the Consistency of Audit Risk Judgments

This research utilises the human information processing methodology to determine whether audit risk judgments are consistent with those obtained by using the audit risk model advanced by Statements on Auditing Standards (SAS) Nos. 39 and 47. The effects of two audit-risk specific factors (the level of algorithmic audit risk and the combination of components of audit risk) are examined. The results of analysis of variance (ANOVA) procedures and cue-utilisation indices reveal that some of the auditors' judgments are inconsistent with the multiplicative nature of the audit risk model. In addition, evidence suggests that auditors affiliated with regional and local firms may depart from the audit risk model when substandard tests of details procedures are performed. The differences noted in the judgments of Big Eight auditors and regional and local auditors indicate that modified versions of the audit risk model may be employed by auditors in different types of audit engagements.     

MONITORING AND AUDITING VALUE FOR MONEY IN THE UK: THE SCOPE FOR QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS - A REPLY

In reply to Tomkins, this author notes that the importance of integrated decision support systems (IDSSs) is the way in which they develop the system of decision conferencing. Comments on the role of quantitative techniques and legislation as the basis of audit are made. Finally, some remarks are made on the development of management and audit teaching and research.     

What factors influence auditors' use of computer-assisted audit techniques?

To meet the challenges of rapid advances in client technology, audit standards urge auditors to use computer-assisted audit tools and techniques (CAATs). However, recent research suggests that CAAT use is fairly low. This paper uses the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) to identify and then examines factors potentially influencing auditors' use or non-use of CAATs. Examining auditor use of CAATs is important because CAATs hold out the promise of improving audit efficiency and effectiveness. Data was obtained from 181 auditors from Big 4, national, regional, and local firms. Results indicate that outcome expectations, the extent of organizational pressures and technical infrastructure support influence the likelihood that auditors will use CAATs.     

MONITORING AND AUDITING VALUE FOR MONEY IN THE UK: THE SCOPE FOR QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS

This paper argues that there is considerable scope for the introduction of quantitative techniques into the planning and conduct of VFM audit in the UK. A new development in public sector corporate planning is described and criteria for desirable performance indicators are given. VFM assessment problems arising out of vague legislation are illustrated using farm income support policy. The paper concludes that the scope for the use of techniques from economics, management science and psychology will not be properly realised without extensive reform in management research and education.     

The influence of earnings management conducted through the use of accretive stock repurchases on audit fees

This study investigates whether auditor perceptions of risk are affected by accretive stock repurchases, which prior research has suggested is a form of earnings management. We argue that auditors are likely to view earnings management conducted through the use of accretive stock repurchases as a signal of increased risk, leading to higher audit fees. Consistent with our hypothesis, we find evidence of a positive and significant association between the use of accretive stock repurchases as an earnings management technique and audit fees. The results suggest that audit fees are 6.0% higher when accretive stock repurchases are used to manage earnings, which corresponds to an audit fee that is approximately $107,000 higher for the average firm-year observation in our sample.     

A Research Note on the Use and Perceived Usefulness of Analytical Procedures by Australian Auditors

This paper provides Australian evidence on the use and perceived usefulness of analytical procedures (AP) by both Big 6 and non-Big 6 auditors. The following questions are posed in the paper. First, what is the extent of usage of AP? Second, which AP are used most frequently? Third, at what stage of the audit are AP used most frequently? Fourth, how effective are AP? Fifth, do auditors expect more or less use of AP in the future? In the context of these questions comparisons are drawn between Big 6 and non-Big 6 auditors and with two recent overseas studies.     

THE EFFECTS OF PRESENTATION FORMAT ON THE EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFICIENCY OF AUDITORS‘ ANALYTICAL REVIEW JUDGMENTS

Modern audit practice has focused increasing attention on the use of analytical review procedures to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of audits. To assist in this endeavour, one branch of analytical review research has investigated the judgment processes that auditors' use in analytical review and the development of decision aids to improve these processes. Several recent papers have considered how alternative presentations of financial and operating data, specifically graphs versus tables, may affect the effectiveness of auditors' analytical review judgments. However, the results have been mixed. This study investigated the expectation that there would be effectiveness and efficiency performance advantages for auditors receiving graphically presented data over those receiving tabular presented data in an analytical review setting. This paper reports on the results of an experiment that examined the impact of graphs versus tables on the effectiveness of sales account balance prediction, confidence in this prediction and the setting of a noninvestigation region, and the relative time efficiency with which these tasks were completed, for an analytical review of sales for a retailing client. The study found mixed results for the accuracy of the sales account balance predictions of the graphical and tabular treatment groups, with no difference found when a regression model estimate of the ‘correct’ prediction was used and greater accuracy for the graphical group when the actual audited sales account balance was used as the accuracy benchmark. No significant differences between treatment groups was found for their confidence in their sales account balance predictions and the width of the noninvestigation regions set. However, a significant time advantage was found for the graphical group. These findings suggest that there may a useful role for the use of graphs as decision aids in income statement related analytical review procedures in improving audit efficiency without sacrificing audit effectiveness.     

“The reports of my death are greatly exaggerated”—Artificial intelligence research in accounting

Gray et al. (2014) examined the productivity of expert systems/artificial intelligence research in accounting and came to the conclusion that both research on and practice use of expert systems/artificial intelligence had waned since the late 1990s. In our study, we reconsider these findings based on a broader view that is ‘artificial intelligence’ centric versus ‘expert systems’ centric. The results show that while there was a bit of a lull in the late 1990s, artificial intelligence research in accounting has continued to steadily increase over the past 30 years. Further consideration of artificial intelligence techniques as embedded modules in integrated audit support systems also suggest that use by practice continues to be robust. Based on these findings, we make a call for much more research on the usability, and use, of artificial intelligence techniques in accounting domains. Contrary to earlier perceptions, the research domain remains vibrant and holds great potential for AIS researchers to take a leadership role in advancing the field.     

Generic Skills in Audit Education

The academic literature and higher education benchmark statements identify groups of skills that are desirable both for students seeking employment and for employers seeking to recruit students. Professional accounting education pronouncements also stipulate skills that are necessary for an individual to possess in order to act as a competent accountant and auditor. Through a questionnaire survey, this research examines: (i) which of these skills audit and accounting practitioners expect UK universities to teach; (ii) which skills audit and accounting academics believe are important for students to acquire; (iii) which skills audit academics believe that employers require; and (iv) which skills audit academics teach in the UK. Institutional theory is used to develop and interpret this research.