How can the public trust charities? The role of performance accountability reporting

Charities rely on public trust to exist. However, that trust has diminished, with a perceived lack of accountability seen as a key reason. This study draws on case studies of two New Zealand charities to examine their performance accountability reporting practices and potential implications for public trust. The findings surface the day‐to‐day agency of charity actors in shifting performance accountability practices towards modes of disclosure that are relevant and accessible to the public. This paper contributes to the literature by extending understandings of how charities produce accountability information that can enhance public trust and, thus, support their mission achievement.     

Unveiling the role of identity accountability in shaping charity outcome measurement practices

Internationally, charities are grappling with the challenges of measuring their service outcomes for accountability purposes. This study employs recent developments in institutional theory to examine the role of identity accountability in shaping these outcome measurement practices. Semi-structured interviews with staff and managers in two New Zealand charities are drawn on to understand their perceptions and experiences of outcome measurement. The findings reveal that charity actors engage in institutional work aimed at discharging both identity accountability and upward accountability via their outcome measurement practices. However, they face challenges in achieving and balancing these two forms of accountability. Policy-practice and means-ends decoupling result, creating the potential for mission drift and other unintended consequences of outcome measurement practices.     

Performance reporting: a comparative study of British and Irish charities

The concept of accountability seems inextricably linked with the view that accounting should provide information to satisfy the information needs of users. The user-needs model is now well established as a useful basis for a conceptual framework for charity reporting, and annual reports are recognised as key documents in the discharge of accountability to external users. It has been suggested that both financial information and also performance information should be disclosed to aid the discharge of accountability. However, previous empirical work conducted in Britain found that while audited financial information was most frequently disclosed by charities, users viewed wider performance information as being of greater importance. No comparable work has been conducted in Ireland. This paper focuses on information outside the financial statements and seeks to identify the type and extent of the reporting of performance information by charities in both Britain and Ireland. The main findings of the research are: performance reporting by British charities, although limited, is considerably better than that of their Irish counterparts; performance reporting by British charities has increased over time; and large charities (both in Britain and Ireland) provide more extensive performance information than small charities. These findings are discussed in both the context of accountability and in terms of conceivable economic incentives for disclosure. In addition, possible reasons for lower disclosure rates by Irish charities are explored.     

Putting our money where their mouth is: Alignment of charitable aims with charity investments – Tensions in policy and practice

Given the values-driven nature of the mission of most charities, it might be expected that investment behaviour would be similarly values-driven. This paper documents the ethical investment policies and practices of the largest UK charities and explores how these are aligned with the charitable aims, drawing upon accountability, behavioural and managerial perspectives as theoretical lenses. The study employs two distinct research methods: responses to a postal questionnaire and follow-up semi-structured interviews with selected charities. The evidence indicates that a significant minority of large charities do not have a written ethical investment policy. Charities with larger investments, fundraising charities and religious charities were more likely to have a written ethical policy. We suggest that there is a pressing need for improved alignment between charities' aims and their investment practices and better monitoring of investment policies.     

Trust and accountability in UK charities: Exploring the virtuous circle

Public trust and confidence in charities is essential for the achievement of their missions. However, recent evidence suggests that trust in UK charities has been damaged, potentially affecting charities' and the charity sector's sustainability and effectiveness. This paper constructs accountability as an important means of developing, maintaining and restoring trust in charities. Through a series of interviews with charity managers, it investigates the public and private mechanisms used in discharging accountability to, and building trust with, charities' main stakeholder groups. The paper identifies the use of a wide range of mechanisms, often highly tailored to particular stakeholders' perceived information needs, which are seen as critical in this process. It is argued that the use and interplay of these can create a ‘virtuous circle’ of accountability and trust, where each reinforces the other. It is argued that where this is achieved, trust in individual charities, and the sector as a whole, can be enhanced.     

The accountability information needs of key charity funders

Government and philanthropic funders are key charity stakeholders, yet we know little about their accountability information needs. This New Zealand study captures these stakeholders’ perceptions of the background, financial and non-financial performance information they need from charities. It also reveals how, in addition to imposing reporting requirements, these key funders engage in ‘institutional work’ to ensure they receive appropriate accountability information.     

Charity performance reporting,regulatory approaches and standard-setting

Internationally, there are strong calls for charities’ formal annual reporting to include non-financial performance information. Without the international standards common in other sectors, national accounting standard-setters often regulate charities’ reporting. Lacking evidence on approaches to encouraging/mandating charity performance reporting, and the effectiveness of these approaches, we ask: “How have different jurisdictions responded to calls for increasing performance reporting?”We conduct a benchmarking study that indicates differences in current reporting practices between Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States. By discussing both current regimes and proposed projects, we develop and illustrate a typology of regulatory approaches to performance reporting. These range from command and control, where standard-setters mandate specific performance reporting standards, through to market regulation, where charities and/or sector bodies acting as regulatory entrepreneurs determine what is to be reported. Between these extremes, the typology describes new governance approaches, with standard-setters partnering and collaborating with other actors. These approaches lead to different requirements with potentially significant implications for performance accountability in the respective jurisdictions. We argue that our regulatory typology contributes useful insights for the many jurisdictions grappling with how to regulate their charity sector and encourage performance reporting.     

Tsunami Swamps Aid Agency Accountability: Government Waives Requirements

Following the devastating tsunamis of 26 December 2004, Australians were eager to donate money to the relief effort. An issue for many was identifying a trustworthy agency; this could be done through direct knowledge of an organisation, or by depending on the recommendations of a source whose competence and integrity was readily accepted. The Australian government provided this external credibility to the 34 charities it listed on its official tsunami assistance website. However, an investigation of these agencies and the actual appeals conducted by them indicates that the government may have waived its normal requirements by moving away from its two accountability programs, AusAID and ACFID accreditation.     

Tsunami Swamps Aid Agency Accountability: Government Waives Requirements

Following the devastating tsunamis of 26 December 2004, Australians were eager to donate money to the relief effort. An issue for many was identifying a trustworthy agency; this could be done through direct knowledge of an organisation, or by depending on the recommendations of a source whose competence and integrity was readily accepted. The Australian government provided this external credibility to the 34 charities it listed on its official tsunami assistance website. However, an investigation of these agencies and the actual appeals conducted by them indicates that the government may have waived its normal requirements by moving away from its two accountability programs, AusAID and ACFID accreditation.     

Charity Accounting Rules and Annual Reports in Hong Kong: A Note

The perceived professionalism of charities is diminished when there is a great diversity in financial reporting practices. In addition, there may be additional regulatory pressure if present reporting practices continue. The purpose of this research was to gather information about the financial reporting practices for charitable organizations in Hong Kong. A brief review of international accounting practices for charities is also provided.     

Do ‘Good Governance’ Codes Enhance Financial Accountability? Evidence from Managerial Pay in Dutch Charities

This paper examines the initial impact of a ‘good governance’ code for charitable organisations that was promulgated in the Netherlands in 2005. Data are gathered from publicly available annual reports of 138 charities in the post‐implementation phase of the code (2005–2008). We first examine whether the code altered charities’ governance structures. Next, we investigate managerial pay as a key aspect of discharging financial accountability because prior literature focused on ‘excessive’ compensation. The findings indicate that a strengthened governance structure positively affects the likelihood of disclosing information concerning managerial pay, as well as mitigating managerial pay level.     

Negotiating for survival: Balancing mission and money

The impetus for prioritising money over mission in charities is increasingly pertinent as public sector austerity progresses in the UK. Mid size charities – who are heavily reliant on grant funding - have experienced proportionately greater challenges to austerity than larger entities. A substantial part of accountability efforts in mid size charities are directed towards funders, where funder imposed frameworks and measures may direct charity attention away from social mission towards funder needs, causing mission drift. Four charity case studies and grant funder interviews were conducted to investigate how charities can pursue social mission in a challenging funding environment. This paper shows that charities can protect social mission despite high dependence on grant funding, but also provides evidence of susceptibility to mission drift in cases where the balance between money and mission changes. Charity accounting systems display notable funder influence. A resource dependence perspective is utilised to highlight the complexity in assessing dependence of charities in a challenging environment and demonstrates the extent of funder influence in accounting and performance systems in these charities. However, charities employ strategies to cope with external requirements, enabling them to retain mission focus.     

New development: Transparent impact reporting in charity annual reports—benefits,challenges and areas for development

The effect of charitable activities on beneficiaries and society is at the heart of what charities exist to do, and stakeholders’ reasons for engaging with charities. Reporting publicly and transparently on this impact can form the basis of improved effectiveness, accountability, legitimacy and trust: potentially securing stakeholders’ ongoing support and engagement. However, significant challenges to transparent impact reporting are also acknowledged. This article explores these possible benefits, and challenges and highlights areas for development in practice and research.     

The donor–beneficiary charity accountability paradox: a tale of two stakeholders

Using stakeholder theory, this paper explores the motivations of charities in discharging accountability and the interplay of donor and beneficiary accountability needs. It considers the extent to which concentration on one group may disadvantage another. The authors found that stakeholders commonly perceived as more salient, such as donors, cede power and impute saliency to beneficiaries.     

A Comparative Study on the Impact of Revised SORP 2 on British and Irish Charities

Charities constitute an important sector in the economies of Britain and Ireland. However, despite their economic importance, charity external financial reporting has been characterised by a diversity of accounting practice and a lack of standardisation. Over the last 20 years an attempt has been made to improve this situation by the publication of a Statement of Recommended Practice (SORP) for charities in 1988 and its revision in 1995. It is argued that inconsistencies in the financial statements of charities and the adoption of dubious accounting practices make it difficult for users of charity accounts to understand (and therefore use) the information provided. Previous studies have mainly looked at the impact of the original SORP (1988) on large charities in Britain. Little is known with respect to the impact on Irish charities. This paper presents the results of a comparative analysis of over 200 financial statements of Irish and British charities with respect to the recommendations contained in the revised SORP (1995). The results provide evidence that the accounts of Irish charities are considerably less compliant with the recommendations made in the revised SORP than their British counterparts. Possible reasons for this are discussed.     

Earnings Management by Non‐profit Organisations: Evidence from UK Charities

Informed by stakeholder theory and resource dependence theory, this paper investigates whether UK charities are engaged in earnings management practices. Based on a sample of 1414 charities over a five‐year period (2008–2012) the study firstly finds that UK charities use discretionary accruals to drive their financial results towards a zero surplus/deficit; this result also reveals that the distribution of reported earnings around zero is prevalent amongst UK charities. In addition, in contrast to prior findings, the empirical results point to a significant association between leverage and earnings management behaviour by charities. Lastly, this study finds that the practice of earnings management is influenced by non‐profit organisational size.     

The State of Charity Accounting – Developments, Improvements and Continuing Problems

This paper is based on a survey of charity accounts undertaken for the Office for National Statistics during the period 1995–1996, and reviews current charity accounting practices of some of these charities in 1994/5 prior to the inception of the new accounting regime from 1996. We look at the accounting practices identified by Bird and provide a comparison between the original Bird analysis in 1981 and current practices in 1994/5. We also consider smaller surveys undertaken in 1989 and 1990. The paper concludes that whilst there has been some progress – particularly among larger charities – since the Bird study there are still major accounting anomalies and examples of poor practice. The paper calls upon auditing firms to be less tolerant of inadequate sets of accounts and points to their pivotal role in improving charity accounting pratices.     

Integrated performance management using information technology: a study of UK charities

This paper explores how UK charities use information technology (IT) to support integrated performance management (IPM). Based on six case studies of small and medium-sized charities (SMCs), it finds that SMCs see IT as important for IPM, but face significant barriers establishing effective IPM. The paper concludes that charities would benefit from a more strategic infrastructure approach to IT, integrating IT for data, information and knowledge.     

Differences in environmental reporting practices in the UK and the US: the legal and regulatory context

The paper examines current corporate environmental reporting practices within UK and US annual reports and suggests that elements of the legal and regulatory framework of each country which regulate environmental activity, and so influence environmental performance, determine the types of disclosures made. The environmental management context is examined to present an explanation of recent developments and to suggest what influences on reporting practice may be important. Theoretical considerations are examined to establish whether the types of disclosure arising from regulatory pressures demonstrate that accountability exists in the disclosure of environmental information, and to what extent the disclosure discharges the organisation's accountability to the users of such information.