我国高尔夫政策变迁与效果研究

文章对中央政府20多年来涉及高尔夫的政策研究表明,我国的高尔夫政策经历了“支持——限制——禁止”3个阶段.其中,规范和限制高尔夫用地类型的政策起到了较好效果,但限制和禁止高尔夫项目发展的政策失效；政策失效原因在于地方政府及文化、体育、旅游部门具有建设高尔夫项目的合理诉求和强烈动机,导致高尔夫政策前后不一致、部门不一致和上下不一致；对高尔夫采取规范发展政策将能起到更好效果,有利于高尔夫项目合理规划,促进高尔夫旅游科学发展.     

The mediating effect of place attachment on the relationship between golf tourism destination image and revisit intention

Focusing on golf tourism in Hainan Province, this study examined the relationship between place attachment, golf tourism destination image, and revisit intention of golf tourists. Data were obtained using questionnaires distributed to golf tourists in Hainan Province, China in 2016. Survey data from 218 tourists indicated that destination image was positively related to place attachment. Moreover, place attachment mediated the relationship between destination image and revisit intention. Implications of these findings for golf tourism marketing strategies as well as future research directions are discussed.     

Segmenting Overseas Golf Tourists by the Concept of Specialization

A main goal of this study was to use the concept of specialization to segment and better understand Korean overseas golf holiday tourists' demographics, motivations, overseas golf tourism destination attributes, and preference for overseas golf tourism destination attributes. A total of 424 questionnaires were collected and 370 questionnaires were used for further statistical analysis. According to results of data analyses, the advanced segment was more likely to be motivated by the quality of overseas golf resorts and other benefits (such as business opportunities), compared to the beginner and intermediate segments. The beginner group was more likely to be a company employee or housewife who earn the least at between US$35,000–US$50,000 per annum, travel on full package tours, use information from family or relatives, and have a stronger preference for the Philippines or China as golf destinations. The study's results showed potential benefits using the concept of specialization in a sport tourism setting even though the concept has been popularly applied in the outdoor setting.     

山东半岛开拓韩国高尔夫旅游市场研究

高尔夫运动在东方国家逐渐普及开来.目前韩国的高尔夫爱好者超过300万,拥有高尔夫球场近200座,但是仍然供不应求,每年利用各种机会携带球杆到海外打球的旅游者高达10万人次,韩国高尔夫旅游市场呈现出高增长的特点.本文首次探讨了如何加强山东半岛与韩国高尔夫旅游市场的合作,对韩国高尔夫旅游市场进行了基本分析,特别是对山东半岛开拓韩国高尔夫专项旅游产品市场存在的问题进行了详细分析,并对推动韩国高尔夫入鲁旅游市场的快速发展提出了有关思考和对策建议.     

Saving golf courses from business troubles

Utilizing a discrete choice experiment, this study attempts to provide improved knowledge regarding how golf tourists arrive at complex trade-offs between different golfing constraints and resort to diverse negotiation strategies to attenuate the effect of those constraining factors. With a study sample of Korean golf tourists, we find that respondents place distinctive weights on several golf course attributes representing various types of golfing constraints to attain the greatest enjoyment. Among a range of barriers to golf trip participation, golf tourists place the highest importance on structural constraints associated with limited personal time resources and inadequate access to golf courses. The study results substantiate golf tourists’ heterogeneous preferences for negotiation strategies, which are dependent upon their levels of golf specialization. Multiple management suggestions are developed to help golf course professionals adapt to the gradually challenging business environment.     

Choosing Virtual – Rather than Real – Leisure Activities: An Examination of the Decision–making Process in Screen-Golf Participants

The objective of this study is to apply Ajzen's theory of planned behavior (TPB) to explicate the intention-formation process in the playing of screen golf. The study investigated how players' favorable/unfavorable attitudes toward screen golf, the social pressures they perceive related to screen golf, and their senses of capability and resources to play screen golf interact to build up or undercut the intention to play this virtual version of the sport. An Internet-based survey and field survey were conducted. Overall, the findings indicated that the fit of the proposed model was satisfactory, and that the proposed model involving the original variables in the TPB and past behavior effectively explained golfers' intention formation. In addition, golfers' concerns about the environment were found to be a moderator in forming their intention. This study illuminated the psychological and social factors that may influence recreation consumers to choose a “virtual”, rather than “real”, leisure activity.     

Climate variability and water use on golf courses: optimization opportunities for a warmer future

Global freshwater resources are under ever-increasing pressure that is anticipated to be exacerbated by climate change. Increasing demands for water use will require tourism to improve and disclose its monitoring and reporting, particularly for water-intensive activities such as golf tourism. Using a sample of 129 courses from Ontario (Canada), this is the first study to examine golf course characteristics that influence water use variability (e.g. dominant soil type, ownership type, and age of course). By establishing “best in class” water use efficiency among common types of courses, potential water extraction savings of 35% are identified (or 6.75 billion litres annually). Importantly, the study also accounts for the influence of climate variability on water use by comparing a climatically normal season (for the 1981–2010 period) with an anomalously dry and warm season to examine the potential impact of future climate change on water use (i.e. reduced precipitation and higher temperatures). Average water use effectively almost doubles during an anomalously dry-warm season (increasing from 59.6 to 94.2 million litres), accentuating the importance of achieving potential water use efficiencies. In addition to best management practices, the need to reshape public perceptions of golf course aesthetics is also discussed.     

Test of the validity of the Beaman,Kim, and Smith supply factors

A new measure of supply, termed a “supply factor,” was derived from participation data by three researchers and reported on in an earlier issue of this journal. One weakness in their presentation was their failure to test the proposition that the “supply factor” correlates closely with a traditional inventory of supply. To test for this correlation, this study replicates their method for golf and golf courses. A significant correlation (r² = 0.74) betwen golf courses and the golf supply factor was found.     

Market Segmentation of Golf Event Spectators Using Leisure Benefits

The proliferation of golf events has provided increased opportunities to watch professional golf tournaments. The purpose of this study is to examine a variety of leisure benefits sought by Korean golf event spectators and provide useful marketing strategies to fulfill their needs. Within the contexts of leisure benefits, different individuals tend to assign different meanings to the same leisure experience. In this sense, golf event spectators are likely to pursue heterogeneous leisure benefits from their engagement. This study identified four distinct spectator groups (i.e., escape seekers, exercise seekers, interest seekers, and excitement seekers) and uncovered significant differences among these segments. Results provided empirical support that event-based sport tourism marketers need to implement diverse strategies to increase and reinforce their customer base.     

Motivating Golf Employees in Southwest Florida

Golf course communities are established to serve the needs of their members. However, the number of golfers in the United States has decreased from 30.6 million in 2005 to 25.7 million in 2011. This poses a real threat to the golf industry. Since employees deliver this service to members, human resource management and employee job satisfaction and motivation becomes paramount. The purpose of this study was to ascertain job satisfaction at golf facilities in Southwest Florida and to determine possible areas for improving job satisfaction in order to enhance organizational outcomes and golfer retention. While the research demonstrated overall job satisfaction was high, job interest among the lower skilled employees was low. A series of job enrichment strategies were recommended to improve job satisfaction among lower skilled employees.     

Management fees and hotel performance in the U.S.

A management company takes care of the day-to-day operations of a hotel and thus has a great amount of influence on the hotel's financial performance. Adopting models from O’Neill, Hanson, and Matilla (2008) and Hua, Morosan, and DeFranco (2015), a set of empirical models, with same-store data from 1471 hotels from 2011 through 2017, was used to test the impact of the total management fee and its subset of the base management fee and the incentive management fee on the hotels' rooms revenue and gross operating profit while controlling for potential confounding factors including chain scale and location.This is the first paper to empirically validate the value of a management contract for both the owners and the management company, including the positive and significant effects that base management and incentive management fees have on hotels’ room revenue and gross operating profit.     

酒店市场营销:花得越多越好?

本文使用史密斯旅游研究(Smith Travel Research,STR)提供的酒店数据来探寻市场营销开支对酒店将来财务效益的影响.根据荻取的结论,我们有3大发现:1)市场营销支出对酒店一年后财务影响的边际效应呈递减分布;2)在个体酒店这个层次,总经营利润(gross operating profit)、纯经营利润(net operating income)以及总销售(revenue)有很强的自我预测性;3)对总经营利润、纯经营利润以及总销售的构成作进一步分析可以获得更好的预测效果.     

Golf-centered Development in Coastal Mediterranean Europe: A Soft Sustainability Test

Since the late 1980s, upmarket tourist and residential golf resorts, golf-centered development (GCD) henceforth, are spreading in the environmentally sensitive and already stressed coastal Mediterranean Europe. This paper examines, on a Mediterranean-wide level, whether and under what conditions GCD is (or might be) a sustainable local and regional development option. After reviewing the main features of GCD in coastal Mediterranean Europe, it conducts a soft sustainability test using a set of criteria that reflect the overarching quest to maintain the present and future integrity of local and regional socio-ecological systems. The criteria are assessed using primary and secondary information for coastal Mediterranean Europe complemented with international evidence where appropriate. The findings indicate that the principal criteria of resource maintenance and use efficiency, livelihood sufficiency and opportunity and intra- and intergenerational equity as well as the necessary conditions to achieve them may not always be satisfactorily met. A summative evaluation, guided by Aristotelian phronesis in balancing multiple goals under conditions of uncertainty, suggests that GCD engenders considerable risks to sustainable local and regional development in coastal Mediterranean Europe. Siting GCD should be embedded within cautious strategic regional planning that is multifunctional, collaborative and adaptive. In closing, the paper indicates future research directions.     

Market diversification and financial performance and stability: A study of hotel companies

The primary objective of this study was to investigate the effect of a diversification strategy by hotel companies on corporate financial performance and stability. Using 36 publicly traded hotel companies, this study analyzed the differences in financial performance and stability between market-diversified and undiversified hotel companies. Accounting measures, market measure, and risk-adjusted performance measure were employed to gauge financial performance. The results of this study indicated that diversification strategy does not provide profit growth, but diversification partly improves the stability of performance. This study supported the nature of the trade-off between financial performance and stability in the company diversification, and also implied that the market diversification strategy by hotel companies does not function as a means to improve financial performance.     

Select Performance Differences in Equity and Non-Equity Membership Structures Within Private Clubs

ABSTRACT

Managers at private clubs in the Greater Toronto Metropolitan area who are members of the Ontario Branch of the Canadian Society of Club Managers (CSCM) were surveyed to determine the membership structures at their clubs (equity or non-equity), along with the reasons, and advantages/disadvantages for those structures. Responses were received from 46 managers, 57% of the population. The managers were affiliated with golf-country clubs, yacht clubs, city-athletic clubs, and city clubs. Respondents of the survey most often represented: golf-country clubs (78%), member-owned clubs (84%), and clubs with non-equity membership structures (83%). Clubs with non-equity membership structures were more likely to have full memberships and waiting lists of candidates to join the clubs. Non-equity clubs also had lower entrance fees to join, but retained a higher proportion of the overall entrance fee paid by members when they joined compared to equity clubs.     

Diversification strategy and financial performance in the Taiwanese hotel industry

This study categorized 25 highly market-diversified international tourist hotels into two sub-groups, based on the highest proportion of hotel revenue generated either by (1) food and beverage (F&B) services; or by (2) room services. We investigated the differences in financial performance of these two sub-groups and concluded that hotels with a major proportion of the revenue from F&B services obtained higher growth but unstable profit margins, compared to another group of hotels with profit mainly from room service. Our study results can serve as a valuable reference for hospitality industries to evaluate the tradeoff between investing more resources in room or F& B service, especially at markets where F&B is highly valued.     

Consumers’ perceived post purchase risk in luxury services

The objectives of this study are to: (1) define the concept of perceived post purchase (3P) luxury risk and (2) develop and validate a psychometrically sound 3P Luxury Risk Scale. A qualitative study and two field studies were conducted to develop and test the scale, and to examine the predictive validity of 3P luxury risk in a nomological network of word-of-mouth (WOM). The survey data is gathered from 333 actual customers of five golf clubs. Integrating structural equation modeling with propensity score analysis, the results of Study 1 reveal that 12 items adequately capture the dimensions of 3P luxury risk. After controlling for framing effects, the results of Study 2 indicate that all of the dimensions of 3P luxury risk negatively influence WOM. This article attempts to shed a new light on the realm of luxury risk studies incorporating normative and behavioral decision-making approaches.     

Have restaurant firms been using right recession turnaround strategies?: Evaluating with propensity score measure

Among the diverse strategies that restaurants use in recessions, some studies have shown that strategies that increase advertising, profit margins, or asset turnover have yielded promising results in terms of firm performance. However, the success of these turnaround strategies might be due to the health or size of a firm rather than the implementation of these strategies. Therefore, this study empirically tested this question utilizing the propensity score measure (PSM) due to concerns with selection bias across restaurant segments. The results showed significant improvements in revenue for limited-service and franchise restaurants when aggressive advertising was used but no improvements in profitability. The profit margin strategy had no impact on revenue but affected profitability and stock returns positively for all segments. Finally, the asset turnover strategy had adverse effects on revenue the year after a recession for all segments. These mixed results suggest that managers need to be cautious when implementing recession turnaround strategies.     

A History of Machine Gambling in the NSW Club Industry

ABSTRACT

This article documents a history of the NSW club industry, with particular emphasis on its evolution to a major contemporary operator of gaming machines at state, national and international levels. It argues that three conditions of club registration-their not-for-profit status, membership requirements, and social benefit objectives-have been instrumental for clubs in gaining and maintaining dominant rights to machine gambling in NSW. These three features of clubs traditionally have underpinned their legitimacy as major providers of machine gambling, reflecting prevailing government policy that linked legalised gambling to social benefit. However, the substantial revenues that accrued from machine gambling, amidst an absence of competition, fuelled an expansion of the club sector that was neither predicted nor planned, with many clubs growing dramatically in assets, membership and facilities. The original club goals of promoting and pursuing the social purpose and community benefit for which they were established became superseded by an emphasis on expansion, market share, and profits. More recently, increased competition for the gambling dollar, reflecting a shift in government policy towards economically driven stimulation and expansion of commercial gambling, has further entrenched the commercialisation of clubs in their machine gambling operations, subordinating their social agenda to economic interests. This change in focus by club management has diminished the social contract that exists for clubs to operate gambling for community benefit, the very basis of the clubs' legitimacy as major providers of machine gambling. Indeed, the implicit assumption that social benefit was built into club machine gambling has allowed the clubs to exploit their position of market dominance in a way that exacerbates the negative social impacts of their core product.     

Declining Memberships During an Economic Downturn in U.S. Private Clubs

ABSTRACT

Surveys were sent to managers at one thousand private clubs, who were members of the Club Managers Association of America (CMAA) to determine what membership changes clubs have experienced during the economic downturn from 2000 to 2003. The majority of respondents managed country clubs, member-owned clubs, and represented different areas of the United States. An overall response rate of 50% was achieved. Most clubs experienced a decline in the overall number of members and a higher annual attrition rate. Fewer clubs reported having a waitlist of members wanting to join and the clubs having a waitlist reported a smaller number of individuals on the waitlist. The clubs without a waitlist reported a higher number of openings in their club. The results of this study suggest that clubs need to implement membership marketing strategies in order to increase the number of candidates for membership during economic downturns.