Selecting franchise partners: Tourism franchisee approaches,processes and criteria

This paper identifies and evaluates the partner selection approaches, processes and criteria use by tourism franchisees to select their franchisor partners. A qualitative study of a sample of Turkish franchisees identifies the partner selection criteria and two distinct approaches used to select franchisor partners. The study contributes to our understanding of franchisee partner selection by demonstrating how the selection criteria, approaches and processes impact on franchisee satisfaction post contract signature. In addition, a framework that depicts the relationship between the criteria, approaches and processes is developed from the study. The study yields a number of implications particularly for prospective franchisees interested in joining a franchise network.     

International hotel development: A study of potential franchisees in China

Franchising is a strategic partnership formed by the franchisor and the franchisee, and consequently partner selection between the franchisor and the franchisee is critical to the long-term success of a franchise. However, the literature has primarily taken the viewpoint of franchisors, but failed to explore the perspective of the potential franchisees. As China represents a significant growth opportunity for international hotel franchisors, this study examines the perspective of China's domestic hotel operators regarding franchising and analyzes a mix of factors that may affect such perspective. The study of 182 Chinese hotel general managers shows that China's hotel practitioners have considerable interest in franchising and are knowledgeable about the concept as it pertains to hotels. The findings indicate that the length of work experience and educational background of Chinese hotel operators may influence their franchising preferences. Hotel chains that have strong brand awareness, supportive centralized reservation systems, and offer relatively high returns on investment at relatively low franchise fees, are most attractive to potential Chinese franchisees.     

Opportunistic behaviour in hospitality franchise agreements

This paper combines agency and social exchange theoretic perspectives to examine opportunistic behaviour in hospitality franchise agreements. It identifies and analyses the opportunistic behaviour of both franchisors and franchisees through a qualitative study of Turkish hospitality franchisees. A model of opportunistic behaviour and social exchange is developed from the study for further empirical testing. The model depicts different categories of franchisee behaviour, how franchisee behaviour is influenced by the behaviour of franchisors, the relevant characteristics of social exchanges between franchisors and franchisees, and the outcomes of those exchanges. As such, the study provides a complementary perspective of franchise opportunism and exchange relationships. A number of implications for hospitality franchise stakeholders are identified as a result.     

A sustainable franchisor-franchisee relationship model: Toward the franchise win-win theory

In order for a franchise system to obtain long-term sustainability, balancing the benefits between franchisors and franchisees is critically important. In order to expand this area of research, this study reviewed prior franchise literature and then outlined what a healthy franchise system is. Further, this study also proposed a model for sustainable franchisor-franchisee relationships (SFFR), which supports the ‘franchise win-win theory.’ In developing a model, this study suggested that relationship quality is a vital part of a healthy relationship. This study also identified the three core components of a sustainable franchisor-franchisee relationship (i.e., satisfaction, trust, and commitment), as well as the antecedents and consequences of the relationship. This study conclusively suggested that franchisees are willing to continue their current franchise business only when they are satisfied with a franchisor’s fairness, autonomy, formalization, and support.     

Knowledge transfer and isomorphism in franchise networks

This study draws on institutional and organisational learning theories to evaluate how knowledge transfer (KT) practices contribute to the development of isomorphism in franchise networks. It also analyses how the characteristics of franchise partners influence this process. Research conducted across a sample of hospitality and retail franchisees in Turkey reveals how the transfer of explicit knowledge aids in the realisation of coercive isomorphism and the transfer of tacit knowledge supports mimetic isomorphism. Additionally, the study identifies the factors that influence the extent to which these types of isomorphism are achieved. In doing so, it identifies the importance of franchisor institutionalisation, or the degree to which a strong and supportive infrastructure is developed, to isomorphism within franchise networks. Institutionalisation impacts on the antecedents to KT. Differences between the KT practices of hospitality and retail franchise networks are also identified.     

The dynamics and evolution of knowledge transfer in international master franchise agreements

The paper identifies and evaluates the antecedents, contextual factors and inter-organisational processes that influence knowledge transfer in international hotel master franchise agreements and how these evolve from the perspective of both franchisors and franchisees. A single, purposively selected in-depth qualitative case study reveals the specific factors relevant to knowledge transfer at different stages of the franchise agreement. Drawing on the alliance literature, the impact of four partner-specific variables on inter-organisational design processes used to transfer knowledge and on three antecedents to knowledge transfer; shared identity, absorptive capacity and casual ambiguity is identified. The study contributes to our understanding of the dynamics and evolution of knowledge transfer in master franchise agreements by highlighting the relative importance of partner-specific variables and relational management to knowledge transfer evolution and the relative importance of shared identity as an antecedent to knowledge transfer in these agreements     

An analysis of franchisees’ satisfaction with support provided by franchisors in foodservice industry

ABSTRACT

This study validated the scale originally developed in Taiwan for measuring satisfaction of foodservice franchisees with support provided by franchisors in mainland China. Data for validation were collected by means of a questionnaire distributed to foodservice franchisees in Shanghai and Xiamen, China respectively, and analyzed through confirmatory factor analysis. The findings showed that the proposed measurement scale is applicable across the two regions with acceptable model fit indices. In addition, this study examined the differences of franchisees’ perception on support provided by franchisors in Taiwan and China. The findings in this research not only advanced scholarly understanding and theory in franchising but also provided useful insight for foodservice stakeholders seeking to expand their market by franchising in these two regions.     

International franchising: Opportunities for China's state-owned hotels?

The hotel industry in China faces global competition. Most of the state-owned hotels have struggled during the period of transition from a planned economy to a market economy. Furthermore, international franchising hotel chains have entered China with their different operation modes. Could the franchising hotels bring opportunities for state-owned hotels? In an attempt to answer this question, the researchers carried out a study of state-owned independent hotels and state-owned franchised hotels to analyze their external and internal business factors, their intentions to join international franchise operations and the international hotel franchisors in China. The research technique used was qualitative. Two rounds of in-depth interviews were conducted. Content analysis was used in the data analysis. Results indicate that the majority of state-owned independent hotels have intentions to join an international franchise operation in the next 5 years. It also identified major factors affecting the franchising of state-owned hotels in China. However, franchising may not be attractive to those hotels that want to keep their management culture and characteristics. Implications of the study were discussed. Recommendations were provided to the state-owned hotels. Future research studies have been suggested to examine the relationships between franchisors and franchisees.     

Effects of restaurant franchising: Does an optimal franchise proportion exist?

Franchising has significantly affected the US economy, contributing to a rapid growth of its retail sales. To identify whether franchising influences a restaurant firm's financial performance, this study investigated (1) the profitability and intangible values of both franchise and non-franchise restaurant firms and (2) the effect of the combination of franchised and company-owned outlets of restaurant firms (i.e., franchise proportion). The results of this study showed that (1) franchise firms had significantly higher profitability than non-franchise firms and (2) the relationships between franchise proportion and firm profitability and intangible value were curvilinear (inverted U-shape), verifying the existence of an optimal franchise proportion. The results propose a possibility that restaurant franchisors could maximize their profitability and intangible value with an optimal franchise proportion when other variables held constant, implying that it is important to pay attention to the franchise proportion together with other management strategies.     

An Investigation of the Level of Managers' Satisfaction with Their Sales Forecasting Process in the Restaurant Industry

ABSTRACT

This study is an investigation into the sales forecasting process of restaurant companies. Using a qualitative and quantitative approach, the researchers examined the level of managers' satisfaction with their sales forecasting process. The participants rated percentage of guest counts, sales dollars, and ease of use as important criteria to the level of managers' satisfaction with their sales forecasting process. It was also determined that a positive relationship existed between the sales forecasting benchmarking model and the level of managers' satisfaction with their sales forecasting process. The level of managers' satisfaction was also impacted by whether or not the sales forecast was actually evaluated. The study concluded with additional noteworthy findings on the managers' level of satisfaction with their process.     

How Customer Personality Traits Influence Brand Loyalty in the Coffee Shop Industry: The Moderating Role of Business Types

This study examines how perceptions associated with customer personality traits can affect customer satisfaction, customer brand identification (CBI), and involvement as well as the development of brand loyalty. Social identity theory was applied to explain these effects as it relates to coffee shop businesses and further investigate relationships between customers and a brand. The verified model with a survey sample of 743 customers confirmed that customer personality traits had significant effects on customer satisfaction and CBI. Customer satisfaction had positive effects on CBI, involvement, and brand loyalty. CBI had significant influences on involvement and brand loyalty. Involvement was, in turn, positively associated with brand loyalty. In addition, the relationships between these variables were moderated by business type (i.e., independent coffee shop vs. franchise coffee shop).     

An analysis of members' perspectives of service quality in Hong Kong tourist association membership system

The objectives of the study were (1) to evaluate members' satisfaction and expectation towards the quality of services provided by the HKTA membership system; (2) to identify the performance “gap” between members' satisfaction and expectation in the HKTA membership system; and, (3) to explore the impact of members' satisfaction level in participating in the HKTA membership system. A comprehensive survey was conducted and a Simple Random Sampling plan was used to survey 600 members. It was found that 28 out of 32 attributes had negative performance “gaps.” The likelihood of participating in HKTA activities was dependant on the members' satisfaction in “Increase social awareness,” “Opportunities to liaise with business associates” and “Upgrading staff through training courses.” The implications of the findings were discussed and recommendations were proposed.     

The Effects of Involvement and Social Support on Frontline Employee Outcomes: Evidence From the Albanian Hotel Industry

Using data from the Albanian hotel industry, this study developed and tested a model that examined the relationships of psychological involvement and social support with frontline employees' outcomes. The results revealed that family involvement and family support increased family satisfaction, while job involvement and work support amplified job satisfaction. Contrary to our predictions, work support did not significantly affect family satisfaction and family support did not demonstrate any significant relationship with job satisfaction. The results lent empirical support to the significant negative effects of both work and family support on turnover intentions. The results also showed that lower job satisfaction led to higher turnover intentions. In contrast, family satisfaction was found to exacerbate employees' turnover intentions. Implications of the results and future research directions are presented in the study.     

Linking Travel Motivation,Tourist Self-Image and Destination Brand Personality

Abstract

Despite a growing body of work on destination branding, there has been little investigation of whether or not tourists attribute brand personality characteristics to tourism destinations and whether or not an emotional connection exists based on tourists' perceived self-image and the ‘brand personality’ of destinations. The aim of this study is to explore the links among four key constructs proposed for the destination branding and choice processtourist needs, destination brand personality, self-congruity, and intentions to visit and satisfaction with a visit. The results indicate that where tourists can make an association between a destination and a destination brand personality, and where this association is consistent with their desired holiday experience, a high level of congruity will exist between the tourists' self-image and their perceptions of the destination. In turn this self-congruity was related to satisfaction with a visit to the destination but not to intention to travel to the destination.     

Assessment on and Perception of Visitors' Environmental Impacts of Nature Tourism: A Case Study of Zhangjiajie National Forest Park,China

This paper examines trampling impacts on vegetation and soil as well as visitors' perception of these impacts in Zhangjiajie National Forest Park, China. Results indicate that visitor usage is proportionate to trampling impacts, with the two most used trails–Yellowstone Village Trail and Gold Whip Stream Trail–having the highest values in Soil Impact Index (SII) and highest rate of scarred trees. Vegetation and soil near 'Treasure Box for Celestial Books' are the most impacted with the Impact Vegetational Index (IVI) being 87.50% and SII being 2.27, respectively. This spot has the highest level of unacceptability. However, visitors' perceptions of the impacts on their hiking satisfaction are not always consistent with the actual physical deterioration. The unacceptability level for 'Gold Whip Crag' was much higher than 'The General Rock' despite the latter having higher IVI values than the former. It is argued that visitors' perceptions of recreation impacts could be influenced by the interaction of IVI, SII, and the size of the area impacted. Other factors such as visual sensitivity and social elements could also have an effect on visitors' judgements. Finally, this paper proposes management strategies for improving the park's visitor and environmental management.     

The Effect of Demographics on Job Satisfaction: A Study of Hotel Managers in Turkey

This study examined the relationship between selected demographic characteristics of middle-level hotel managers in Turkey and five selected job satisfaction dimensions (degree of satisfaction with the work, coworkers, supervision, financial compensation, and promotion opportunities). In addition, the relationship between job satisfaction dimensions and the middle-level hotel managers' overall job satisfaction level was analyzed. The study sample consists of 103 middle-level hotel managers (all Turkish nationals) in 17 rated four- and five-star hotels in Kusadasi, Turkey. Study findings indicate significant differences between managers in various demographic categories and their levels of job satisfaction. Overall, the data revealed that financial compensation, promotion opportunities, and supervision most significantly impacted middle-level hotel managers' overall job satisfaction levels.     

Tourists' shopping experiences at street markets: Cross-country research

Considering shopping as one of the most important motivations for travel, this study focuses on tourists' shopping attitudes towards street markets while on a vacation. Specifically, this study proposes and tests a conceptual model that assesses how price consciousness and perceived utility, as critical drivers of attitudes in street markets, may influence tourist satisfaction and future intentions. As opposed to the structure of previous research, this study is also based on a cross-national comparative study conducted among foreign tourists visiting Algarve, Portugal and Bodrum, Turkey, in the summer of 2011. Study findings confirm that price and utility perceptions are the most important marketplace cues and higher level of satisfaction moderates tourists' willingness to return or recommend street markets in both destinations.     

Older Workers' Communication Satisfaction in the Lodging Industry

Abstract

Labor shortages and high turnover trouble the lodging industry. Older workers have been overlooked as a solution to these problems. Older workers have demonstrated qualities such as loyalty, a strong work ethic, good customer relations, and reliability of performance that the lodging industry desires. The lodging industry needs to strive to increase older workers' job satisfaction in order to attract and retain them. Previous research has already proven that communication satisfaction has a significant impact on job satisfaction. This study examines the important communication factors that influence older workers' job satisfaction. Suggestions regarding older workers' communication satisfaction are provided.     

Perceived impacts of medical tourism development on community wellbeing

Community leaders and tourism authorities in Las Vegas have suggested the promotion and development of medical tourism to improve the economy and quality of life for residents. The present study uses social exchange theory with spillover theory as the conceptual framework to examine factors of economic performance of medical tourism, overall community satisfaction, health care satisfaction and attitudes toward medical tourism; these factors influence on residents' perceptions of medical tourism's impact on community wellbeing, which in turn affects willingness to pay higher taxes and support for medical tourism development. The findings revealed that the greater the economic performance of medical tourism, the more positive the impact of medical tourism to community wellbeing was perceived. Similarly, attitudes toward medical tourism and overall community satisfaction positively influenced the perceived impact of medical tourism on community wellbeing. Finally, community wellbeing positively influenced residents' willingness to pay higher taxes and support medical tourism development.