The Impact of a Sport Mega-Event on Destination Image

Abstract

There is intense competition to host sports mega-events as cities and countries perceive that doing so will enhance their global image and make the destination more attractive to future tourists. Is there empirical evidence to prove that hosting a mega sport event really does stimulate international visitation and enhance the destination's image? In this paper we investigate this question in relation to the 2002 FIFA World Cup, co-hosted by South Korea and Japan. To this end, 412 foreign tourists were surveyed during the World Cup about their image of South Korea. Differences in demographics, motive and perceptions between tourists travelling specifically for the World Cup, and those coming to South Korea for non-World Cup-related reasons, are noted. The study provides a baseline dataset from which future research on megasports events can build.     

Budget traveler accommodation satisfaction: The case of Yogwans during the 2002 FIFA World Cup Korea/Japan

The preference attributes of budget-conscious travelers have been researched in detail, since the budget segment is important to the hotel industry. Special events, where budget-conscious travelers are major patrons and a huge volume of rooms is needed for a specific period, require accommodation alternatives. Yogwans, Korean-style hotels, have historically been utilized as such an accommodation alternative during special events in Korea. This study of the 2002 World Cup found that budget-conscious travelers were generally not highly satisfied with yogwans. Using a factor analysis technique, this study also identified five factors that were considered important for choosing to stay at yogwans. Finally, multiple regression analysis was then applied to examine the relative importance of each of these factors in influencing the overall satisfaction level of yogwan use. In order of importance, room quality, external quality, value, staff service quality, and accessibility were significant factors in determining the overall satisfaction level of yogwans. This study recommends that accommodation alternatives for budget-conscious travelers should match the needs of specific customers during special events by considering the unique attributes of the event and classifying attributes into fixed and variable categories.     

No more dancing for gods: constructing Taiwanese/Chinese identity through the Ilisin

Increasingly there is a desire amongst political and administrative authorities concerned with the management of English professional football to extend the ‘sense’ of transformation witnessed in the popularity and cultures of support surrounding the domestic game to the national team. However, there is a widely held perception that both the social formations constituted around the England team and media representations of them have proven resistant to the cultural shift (imagined or otherwise) associated with domestic club football. Concern within the UK Home Office, the English Football Association (FA) and some supporters' groups has led to a high profile attempt to overcome this ‘resistance’ and ‘re‐market’ the image of England supporters in order to create a more socially inclusive supporter base. Drawing on ethnographic and textual data collected in the build up to, and during, the 2002 men's football World Cup finals, this paper considers the frameworks of knowledge associated with this intervention and their impact on the cultural forms of support for the England team during the World Cup, in specific locations both at ‘home’ and ‘away’. This consideration then gives way to an interpretation of the extent to which ‘Englishness’ continues to be performed in culturally exclusive ways that emphasize the contingency of new and emergent social formations.     

Assessing the environmental impacts of mega sporting events: Two options?

At a time when public and private agencies recognise the importance of sustainable development, the environmental impacts of mega sporting events are commanding increasing attention. However, despite event sponsors often flagging the importance of environmental as well as socio-economic legacy components, the environmental impacts of events are difficult to assess quantitatively, being complex and often occurring over extended periods. The general assessment issue is particularly acute with regard to mega events such as the Olympic Games and FIFA World Cup. The practical issues mean that any quantitative techniques seeking to assess environmental impacts are likely to be partial in scope. This paper examines two such approaches for quantitative impact assessment of selected environmental externalities connected with visitation at sporting events. The paper considers the use of Ecological Footprint analysis and Environmental Input–Output modelling. It provides examples of the applications of these techniques to discrete sporting events in a UK region, and discusses whether these techniques are appropriate for exploring the environmental impacts of mega events.     

The Impact of Sports Events on Inbound Tourism in New Zealand

Sports events are an instrument of destination marketing for host countries. Over the past 40 years, New Zealand has held sports events such as the Commonwealth Games and the America's Cup and many international tourists have visited New Zealand during these events. While past studies have examined the economic value of such tourism at a generic level, the impact of mega sports events at more specific levels is unknown. Thus, this study examines not only the impact of eight mega sports events upon New Zealand's international tourist arrivals over the 1983–2005 period at the overall level, but also the number of tourist arrivals from participating countries for each event. Results suggest that the 1990 Commonwealth Games, the 2000 America's Cup (yachting) and the 2005 British and Irish Lions Tour (rugby) had a significant impact on tourist arrivals overall and on arrivals from each participating country.     

Watching the FIFA World Cup 2010 in England: the sojourner perspective

Recent years have seen an emergence of a varied academic literature focused on the football fan, with a wealth of studies exploring issues such as hooliganism, fan behaviour and fan identification. No research, however, has documented the experiences and perspectives of the international sojourner, who follows the televised tournament far away from the home country. This paper offers a contribution to the literature on fandom by focusing on the experiences of becoming a temporary fan among a sample of nine international students in England during the period of the 2010 FIFA World Cup. It shows the importance of the tournament for students away from their home nation, acting as a point of celebration and as a means of bringing sojourners of the same nationality together to support their team. It reveals how the tournament offered escape from stress, became a focal point for social interaction, provided the opportunity for recreation of home, and for the reinforcement of feelings of national identity.     

Digital cultures,acceleration and mega sporting event narratives

Mega sporting events, as with the evolution of human progress, continue to be marked by trepidation and awe over the transformational power of technology. Today, mega sporting events like the Olympic Games and World Cup are increasingly the captivating spectacles of consumer capitalism. Whereas, since the 1980s, established media organisations have exerted a significant influence over the production of mega sporting event narratives, the mass availability of everyday digital technologies democratises media making, changing the way events are conceived, planned, mediatised and reported. Citizens, living digitised and social mediated lifestyles, are now important co-creators, shaping the design, delivery and dissemination of events to a wider audience. This article explores the emergence of digital tools and technologies and their impact on mega sporting event media narratives. It highlights how social media and ubiquitous digital technologies augment accelerated identities. As a means of illustrating the acceleration agenda and its impact on mega sporting event coverage, the author presents a case study of a citizen media initiative #citizenrelay, which focused on the Olympic Torch Relay on its journey around Scotland, UK in the summer of 2012. The article concludes by suggesting that the digitally democratised citizen has power in their pocket to make media that, when brought together as part of a collective, can present alternative narratives to those offered by the established media frame.     

Why travel to the FIFA World Cup? Effects of motives, background, interest, and constraints

Events have become a significant component of destination marketing. Previous work suggests that event interest, risk constraint, and financial constraint will affect potential attendees’ desire to attend and their sense that it is feasible to attend. For large sport events, interest in the event and perceived constraints should derive from the level of fan motives, travel motivations, and the potential attendee's background. These expectations are tested in a survey of 556 members of American soccer clubs prior to the FIFA World Cup. Results were generally consistent with expectations, although some motives had both positive and negative effects. Event interest and constraints fully mediated the effects of motives and background on respondents’ sense that it was feasible for them to attend. Financial constraint did not affect desire to attend. The desire to learn about the host country had direct effects on interest in the event and the desire to attend the event. Results suggest the value of segmented sport event marketing that appeals to both travel and fan motives.     

Psychic income and social capital among host nation residents: A pre–post analysis of the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa

Following a growing focus on the social impacts of mega-sport events over the past decade, this study examined perceptions of psychic income and social capital among South African residents prior to, and following, the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Psychic income is a measure of event-related pride/euphoria and social capital is a proxy for social cohesion. Using a quasi-experimental trend design, residents of five host cities were surveyed three months pre-event (n = 1749), and eight months post-event (n = 2020). ANOVA, MANOVA and MANCOVA were used to evaluate the data over time. Psychic income significantly increased from pre to post-event; males and Black South Africans rated psychic income significantly higher. Three social capital dimensions decreased and two exhibited no change post-event; Black and younger South Africans perceived higher social capital levels. The social utility of mega-events, the concept of event-related legacy, and the operationalization of social impact and data collection time-frames for future studies are discussed.     

Redefining stakeholder relationships in mega events: New Zealand Chinese and the Rugby World Cup

Through a proposed stakeholder framework with different participation modes, this study of the Chinese migrant community in Auckland explored the relationships around their participation in Rugby World Cup, namely, their awareness of the event and its link to event participation, economic links, identity, and national pride. Adopting a pre- and post-event approach, data from self-administered and online questionnaires were collected and examined using a multivariate analysis. A multidirectional participation effect was found for multicultural value, linkages, sense of identity and pride, business engagement, and recommending the country. Finally, stakeholder relationships were redefined by regrouping stakeholders in a mega sporting event.     

Leisure lifestyle courses in old age

This paper examines representations of English identity in the popular press through a review of the tabloids' coverage of the 2002 Football World Cup. Utilizing a qualitative discourse analysis approach, the paper assesses the content, style and tone of reports of the England team during the tournament and places these within the context of contemporaneous news and current affairs. It is argued that much of the coverage of England's matches was flavoured with the kind of military metaphors and xenophobic cliche;aa evident in previous reporting of football tournaments. The coincidence of England's progress in the World Cup with the Golden Jubilee celebrations afforded the opportunity for the tabloids to declare that a ‘new kind of national confidence and patriotism’ had been born. However, whilst a new, more inclusive Englishness was evolving amongst England supporters, this was not reflected in associated tabloid coverage, where a narrower and more nostalgic Englishness was commonly observed.     

Mega-sporting events and children’s rights and interests – towards a better future

Abstract

The public subsidy of Olympic Games and FIFA World Cup hosting opportunities is invariably justified on the basis that they will secure a range of public good outcomes. Problematically, the information available inspires less confidence that these ambitions will be met and highlights how social costs and benefits are unevenly distributed. As a result, interest in the social dimension of hosting has grown, yet the knowledge to support responsive and evidence-based events policy remains relatively underdeveloped, particularly in relation to the specific needs and experiences of affected communities. The impact on children as a particularly stakeholder group reflects this context of recognition and knowledge gap. For example, while it is accepted that immovable deadlines and risk of reputational consequences raise a variety of social justice concerns throughout the event lifecycle, the nature and scale of these impacts on children is poorly understood and frequently mismanaged. Findings drawn from research commissioned by Terre des Hommes International Federation which explored the intersections between children’s rights and social justice concerns highlights how such initiatives present risks and opportunities that cannot be managed effectively until children are included within associated planning processes as a specific stakeholder group with distinct needs and interests.     

区域间投入产出模型(IRIO)的我国会展业经济影响分析

在事件活动领域,相对于体育活动,关于会展活动经济影响的研究较为薄弱。如何将与会展相关的产业和区域全部纳入其中以避免失真和漏损,是会展经济影响研究的难点之一。该研究首次运用区域间投入产出模型(IRIO),通过将波及的12个产业部门进行归并,计算了我国30个省区会展产业的区域及区域间影响力,并以广交会为案例,进行了会展间接经济影响的实证分析。研究结果显示:我国会展业对国民经济具有较强的拉动作用,而且几乎所有的省区都会产生相互间的波及效应;在总产出层面,会展产业的影响力在东部沿海和中西部地区表现出较为明显的差异性;我国会展业还有一定的发展空间。案例研究表明,第104届广交会的间接经济影响约为162.43亿元(其中广东占比最高,为35.09%),直接与间接效应之比为1:2.94;批发和零售贸易业等五个产业部门受广交会影响较大,合计占比为77%。     

Global Event Management: a critique

Within the professional Event Management literature considerable claims have been made for Event Management. Investment in the area and student enrolments has risen dramatically. In some circles, Event Management is portrayed as challenging Leisure Studies and even undermining it. However, if one examines the professional literature, one quickly finds that it is overwhelmingly uncritical and self-congratulatory. The relationship between Events, manipulation, corruption and social control has not been rigorously examined. This paper distinguishes the main types of Global Event (Single Issue and Cyclical). It attempts a balanced account of the claims made by Event Management. It examines data from Live Aid, the FIFA World Cup and the Sydney Olympics to test the claims against practice. It also includes two longer examinations of Global Event Management, namely the Sydney Mardi Gras and the Live 8 (2005) concert. The paper concludes that Event Management is based in principles from neo-liberalism and communitarianism. This produces an attitude to Events and leisure which is Reformist. This perspective is contrasted with the critical tradition in Leisure Studies which supports a more radical perspective on leisure.     

A Comparison of Tourists' and Residents' Uses of the Temple of Heaven World Heritage Site,China

World Heritage Sites are designated following evaluations of their universal values. However, their use is often shared by different user groups who may attach different meanings to the same heritage, leading to different interpretations and uses. This situation raises important questions for visitor management at World Heritage Sites, where a variety of users must be accommodated. Using Temple of Heaven as an example, the motivations, preferences and experiences are explored for three major user groups: residents, domestic and international tourists. Results show that residents and tourists exhibit different spatial and temporal patterns of use. Most local users are elderly and use the place regularly for exercise and social purposes. The historical and cultural values are widely recognized but tourists are motivated more strongly than local users to experience heritage values. Practical implications are generated to inform managers of the study site and other heritage sites shared by locals and tourists.     

Local residents’ perceptions of the impacts of the ICC Cricket World Cup 2007 on Barbados: Comparisons of pre- and post-games

This study analysed Barbadians’ perceptions of the impacts on Barbados of jointly hosting the International Cricket Council Cricket World Cup 2007. The aim was to investigate the pre- and post-perceptions of Barbadian residents on the impacts (direct and indirect) of hosting the ICC CWC 2007. Statistically significant differences between pre- and post-games perceptions were found for all seven factors: benefits of cultural exchange, social problems, economic benefits, natural resource and cultural development, traffic congestion and pollution, price increases, and construction costs. While pre-games expectations were that the costs of hosting CWC 2007 would outweigh the benefits, after the games Barbadians perceived that the benefits had outweighed the costs. Within this context, it is recommended that there be a greater level of engagement with local residents prior to hosting a mega-event, to maximise benefits, minimise costs, and ensure successful outcomes.     

What the Millennial Generation from Around the World Prefers in Their Meetings,Conventions, and Events

The extant research relates to what the Millennial generation prefers in their meetings and events. The focus of this paper is to compare the wants and needs of Millennials from five different continents to ascertain similarities and differences. This is the largest study ever done of Millennials with regard to meetings and events. While some differences were uncovered, it was found that Millennials are a very homogeneous group. Thus, event professionals can use similar strategies when targeting this group. However, it was also found that there were some differences in specific areas and event professionals would do well to ascertain their mix of attendees by national origin and then apply the most significant findings of the research at hand.     

Economic Impact of Cultural Events: The Case of the Zora! Festival

In addition to their cultural and social values, cultural events have emerged as an instrument for tourism development, tourism seasonality expansion, city image improvement and boosting regional economies. By using a Social Accounting Matrix for Orange County, Florida, this study evaluates the economic impact of an event that highlights the folklore and cultural contribution of Zora Neale Hourston. Survey data from 1100 event participants were used to estimate the spending patterns of festival attendees. The two major contributions directly related to this study are (1) the use of a quantitative methodology that will put different policy options in perspective and (2) enabling researchers to study the impact of cultural events at three levels: direct, indirect and induced effects.