COMPETITIVE PRICING AND EFFICIENCY IN SEARCH EQUILIBRIUM*

We consolidate and generalize some results on price determination and efficiency in search equilibrium. Extending models by Rubinstein and Wolinsky and by Gale, heterogeneous buyers and sellers meet according to a general matching technology and prices are determined by a general bargaining condition. When the discount rate r and search costs converge to 0, we show that prices in all exchanges are the same and equal the competitive, market clearing, price. Given positive search costs, efficiency obtains iff bargaining satisfies Hosios' condition and r=0. When prices are set by third‐party market makers, however, we show that search equilibrium is necessarily efficient.     

Auditors' Generation of Diagnostic Hypotheses in Response to a Superior's Suggestion: Interference Effects*

Abstract. This study investigates the effects of a superior's suggestion on auditors' generation of additional hypotheses from long-term memory (LTM). It investigates whether an inherited hypothesis affects the category membership of additional hypotheses retrieved from LTM, in particular when hypotheses from few alternative categories are considered. Based on research in cognitive psychology, the authors predicted that providing auditors with a superior's suggestion would interfere with their generation of additional hypotheses from the same transaction cycle as that of the superior's suggestion. The experimental results are consistent with the expected interference effect. Auditors who inherited a superior's suggestion from a particular transaction cycle generated fewer additional hypotheses from the same transaction cycle than did auditors who were not provided with a superior's suggestion. Moreover, the effect came into play immediately when auditors inherited a hypothesis involving a typical problem: the first hypothesis generated tended to come from a different transaction cycle than that of the superior's suggestion. Résumé. Dans l'article qui suit, les auteurs se penchent sur l'incidence que peut avoir la suggestion d'un supérieur sur les hypothèses supplémentaires que formulent les vérificateurs en puisant dans la « mémoire à long terme ?. Ils cherchent à déterminer si une hypothèse transmise exerce une influence sur la catégorie à laquelle appartiennent les hypothèses supplémentaires tirés de la mémoire à long terme, en particulier lorsque les hypothèses envisagées proviennent d'un petit nombre de catégories possibles. En s'appuyant sur la recherche en psychologie cognitive, les auteurs supposent que la suggestion communiquée par un supérieur aux vérificateurs perturbera chez ces derniers la formulation d'hypothèses supplémentaires tirées du même cycle d'opérations que celui dont provient la suggestion du supérieur. Les résultats expérimentaux des chercheurs confirment cet effet perturbateur. Les vérificateurs à qui un supérieur a transmis une suggestion d'hypothèse provenant d'un cycle d'opérations donné ont formulé moins d'hypothèses supplémentaires provenant du même cycle d'opérations que les vérificateurs à qui aucune suggestion n'a été faite par un supérieur. En outre, l'effet perturbateur se manifeste immédiatement au moment où les vérificateurs se voient transmettre une hypothèse faisant intervenir un problème type: la première hypothèse formulée tend à provenir d'un cycle d'opérations différent de celui dont la suggestion du supérieur est issue.     

Urban Structure and Growth

Most economic activity occurs in cities. This creates a tension between local increasing returns, implied by the existence of cities, and aggregate constant returns, implied by balanced growth. To address this tension, we develop a general equilibrium theory of economic growth in an urban environment. In our theory, variation in the urban structure through the growth, birth, and death of cities is the margin that eliminates local increasing returns to yield constant returns to scale in the aggregate. We show that, consistent with the data, the theory produces a city size distribution that is well approximated by Zipf's law, but that also displays the observed systematic underrepresentation of both very small and very large cities. Using our model, we show that the dispersion of city sizes is consistent with the dispersion of productivity shocks found in the data.     

Expertise and Knowledge Management in Public Accounting Professional Services Firms: A North American Perspective

This article identifies significant knowledge management issues experienced by North American professional services firms, obtained from a review of the literature and from interviews conducted with senior partners in three of the Big 5 firms. Professional services firms face demanding client needs in a rapidly changing global business envimnment. They must have a talented, diverse professional staff and be able to share and leverage the knowledge of this staff. The critical resource that the firms sell is knowledge. Knowledge management is at the core of this process.     

The Effect of Accountability and Time Budgets on Auditors' Testing Strategies*

This study investigates the joint effects of accountability and time budgets on auditors' testing strategies. The task studied, substantive analytical procedures, requires auditors to identify and test hypotheses when investigating the cause of unexpected fluctuations. Thus, auditors must determine the number of tests to conduct (i.e., extent), the number of potential hypotheses to directly test (i.e., breadth), the number of tests for each hypothesis (i.e., depth) and the number of potential error or non‐error hypotheses to test (i.e., focus). Testing strategies, which we define as choices made with respect to extent, focus, depth, and breadth of testing, have significant practical and theoretical implications. For example, reducing the breadth of testing may result in failure to test the correct hypothesis, potentially impairing audit effectiveness. In this study, auditors inherited five potential causes of an unexpected increase in the gross margin of a client. As in practice, their task was to conduct tests to investigate and identify the actual cause of the fluctuation. Auditors were randomly assigned to one of four conditions created by fully crossing accountability and time budgets. The results indicate that accountability leads to an increase in the extent and breadth of testing but does not affect the depth of testing. Further, accountability leads to an increase in the testing of errors but results in a decrease in the testing of non‐errors. The focus on breadth and error testing is consistent with the notion that accountability, to a superior with unspecified preferences, promotes more cautious behavior. The results also show that a time budget decreases the extent and depth of testing but does not affect the breadth of testing. There was no evidence that the two factors interactively affected testing strategies or performance. Finally, increased breadth of testing was the mechanism that led to better performance as measured by the identification of the actual cause of the unexpected fluctuation.     

An Examination of Moral Development within Public Accounting by Gender,Staff Level,and Firm*

Abstract. This study extends prior research on the average level of moral development in public accounting by examining five large accounting firms and three staff levels. The research is important because it highlights the need to include auditors from several firms in research designs, provides evidence of differences in moral development among public accounting firms, and profiles the professions' average level of moral development for three levels. The data are from 494 managers and seniors (204 females and 290 males) from five Big Six firms. Using the Defining Issues Test (Rest 1979a) to measure moral development, several results were noted. First, the results indicate a difference in the average level of moral development among firms, suggesting that use of subjects from only one firm inhibits the generalizability of findings regarding moral development. Second, female managers are at a significantly higher average level of moral development than male managers. In fact, the average scores for male managers fell between those expected for senior high school and college students. The data suggest that a greater percentage of high-moral-development males and low-moral-development females are leaving public accounting than their respective opposites. These results indicate that the profession has retained, through advancement, males who are potentially less sensitive to the ethical implications of various issues. The analysis also indicates that Kohlberg's (1969) theory of moral development is not biased towards the thought processes of males because female auditors did not score lower on the Defining Issues Test.