Guidelines issued by the consumer board: The Swedish experience

The Scandinavian countries have been concerned with the question of self-regulation over the past twenty years and their experiences demonstrate a fluid approach to the question of government intervention in the relations between consumer and business.This report highlights the movement which has taken place in Sweden from quasi private regulation by business in the sixties to the Ombudsman institution as a government supervisory agency in the seventies. Sweden itself has a very marked system of guidelines which serve as non-binding rules in informal negotiations between consumers and suppliers. Their impact is as great as that of formal rules, and examples of their use are illustrated in the article. The guidelines themselves are constantly being revised by the Consumer Board after discussion with the business community. Breach of the guidelines themselves, although not per se an offence, will probably justify an action being brought against the offending firm by the Consumer Ombudsman. The guidelines also appear to differ in their scope and number, and although severely criticized, appear to have fulfilled an important function.The report further shows that the means of negotiation and regulation are still not static: a further move towards self-regulation is being mooted, partly as a result of economic cut-backs. These proposals are, however, not yet fully developed.

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Richtlinien der Verbraucherbehörde — das schwedische Beispiel

Zusammenfassung Schweden hat als Vorreiter der Nordischen Staaten seit Anfang der siebziger Jahre sein System des Konsumentenschutzes von der Selbstkontrolle auf eines der staatlichen Kontrolle umgestellt. Dadurch ist allerdings die Selbstregulierung durch Verhaltenskodices, z.B. im Direktvertrieb, nicht gänzlich beseitigt worden. Eine größere Rolle spielen allerdings die vom Ombudsmann bzw. der Verbraucherbehörde erlassenen Verhaltensrichtlinien. Deren Funktion ist kürzlich von einer staatlichen Kommission untersucht worden, an der der Autor mitgewirkt hat. Die Kommission kommt zu einer im Prinzip positiven Einschätzung des Systems, fordert aber stärkere Berücksichtigung von Selbstregulierungsmaßnahmen auch unter budgetären Gesichtspunkten. Richtlinien werden zwischen der Behörde und den Unternehmensverbänden ausgehandelt. Rechtlich stellen sie sich nur als Empfehlungen dar, und sie binden die Unternehmen ebensowenig, wie sie den Konsumenten Rechte geben. Faktisch beinhalten sie eine Konkretisierung der generalklauselartigen Informationsgebote, Lauterkeitsregeln und Sicherheitsbestimmungen des Handelspraktikenrechts. Die Unternehmen befolgen sie meistens freiwillig. Verstöße werden vom Marktgericht in der Regel als unlauter angesehen. Inhaltlich befassen sich die Hälfte der 36 bisher erlassenen Richtlinien mit Informationsfragen, die andere Hälfte mit der Produktsicherheit. Die Regelungsdichte variiert. Nach anfänglicher Kritik vor allem von Unternehmensseite hat das System inzwischen hohe Akzeptanz gefunden.

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Ulf Bernitz is Professor of Private Law, especially Consumer and Market Law, Institute for Intellectual Property and Market Law, University of Stockholm, S-10691 Stockholm, Sweden.     

Exploring store format development and its influence on store image and store clientele – the case of IKEA’s development of an inner-city store format

Abstract

A changed technological landscape and radically changed consumer behavior are forcing retailers to rethink their business models, retail formats, and retail offerings. The global retailer IKEA is no exception in this development. Recently, the traditional IKEA format, which has been so successfully duplicated across the world over the years, has been complemented with other formats that are new and innovative for IKEA. Based on an empirical investigation of consumer perceptions of the store format development in Hamburg-Altona, Germany, the present study explores format development and its influence on store image and clientele, considering also the purpose of visiting IKEA and how this seems to have changed with the introduction of the new format. We also discuss the core aspects of the IKEA formats, and the fact that although some things have changed, others have stayed the same to preserve the IKEA image.     

Consumer Power: A Comparison of the Old Economy and the Internet Economy

From the very beginning of the Internet, a decisive shift from supplier power to consumer power was predicted by several authors and is still maintained in recent literature. Although the Internet has grown rapidly within the last years and electronic markets have evolved, a theoretical framework for consumer power on the Internet still cannot be identified. Few authors have taken efforts to apply common concepts of power theory to the characteristics of the Internet. Based on the concept of French and Raven, this paper analyses consumer power in traditional markets and then compares it to the situation on the Internet. This comparison shows that the Internet enables consumers (a) to overcome most information asymmetries that characterize traditional consumer markets and thus obtain high levels of market transparency, (b) to easily band together against companies and impose sanctions via exit and voice, and (c) to take on a more active role in the value chain and influence products and prices according to individual preferences. A broad literature review reveals that empirical findings confirm these hypotheses to a great extent. The authors conclude by summarizing the results and drawing implications from two different angles, namely from a marketing and a consumer policy perspective.     

ON THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT PATTERNS OF PUBLIC CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURES

The multiplier effects resulting from an isolated increase in the level of public consumption within different public branches are investigated and the policy implications are discussed. The article begins with a theorethical analysis which shows why and in which ways these multipliers can be expected to differ between public branches. Thereafter, an empirical investigation is given, based on simulations with an econometric model of the Swedish economy. In this model the public activities are divided into 13 different public branches. The effects of an increase in public consumption on employment, imports and private consumption are found to differ considerably depending on which branch of the public sector is expanded. Some implications for short run stabilization policy are discussed. The article ends with a special analysis of the implications for a medium term planning problem: the trade off between private and public consumption growth. This analysis throws new light on the old topic "private or public consumption". In an economy with highly differentiated production in the public sector the trade-off is shown not to be unique. The sacrifice of private consumption growth corresponding to a given growth of public consumption expenditures will vary considerably according to the distribution of the public consumption growth within the different branches of the public sector.     

Transfer Pricing and Hold-Ups in Supply Chains

Abstract. We reconsider the hold‐up problem under symmetric information when more than two parties form a ‘supply chain’. The parties are assumed to renegotiate bilaterally and sequentially. Potential trade distortions then arise in addition to the usual investment problem. Following Edlin and Reichelstein (1995, 1996), we consider fixed‐quantity contracts. First‐best allocations are shown to be attainable if the parties are able to commit to a ‘forced‐compliance’ regime where a central office monitors the consistency of the bilateral renegotiations.     

Implementation of EU initiatives on gender diversity and executive directors’ pay in municipally-owned enterprises in Germany and The Netherlands

A popular topic in the assessment of the functioning of municipally-owned enterprises is the corporate governance (CG) of such organizations. The results of the comparative study presented in this paper indicate that European Union initiatives on gender diversity and executive directors’ pay are often not implemented in public CG codes and in practice in municipally-owned enterprises in Germany and The Netherlands. The paper proposes that EU initiatives should specifically target municipally-owned enterprises and shows concrete hard and soft regulation options for national and international policy-makers and future research perspectives.     

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Towards a brain-to-society systems model of individual choice

Canonical models of rational choice fail to account for many forms of motivated adaptive behaviors, specifically in domains such as food selections. To describe behavior in such emotion- and reward-laden scenarios, researchers have proposed dual-process models that posit competition between a slower, analytic faculty and a fast, impulsive, emotional faculty. In this paper, we examine the assumptions and limitations of these approaches to modeling motivated choice. We argue that models of this form, though intuitively attractive, are biologically implausible. We describe an approach to motivated choice based on sequential sampling process models that can form a solid theoretical bridge between what is known about brain function and environmental influences upon choice. We further suggest that the complex and dynamic relationships between biology, behavior, and environment affecting choice at the individual level must inform aggregate models of consumer choice. Models using agent-based complex systems may further provide a principled way to relate individual and aggregate consumer choices to the aggregate choices made by businesses and social institutions. We coin the term “brain-to-society systems” choice model for this broad integrative approach.     

Youth unemployment

Youth unemployment has been on the rise since the beginning of the crisis in 2008. Even more troublesome is the dramatic rise in the number of youth not in employment, education or training, which has led to widespread concerns about the impact on social cohesion and fears of a “lost generation”. Given the extreme differences in youth unemployment levels among member states, it is clear that no single labour market policy will be appropriate throughout the EU. There may, however, be opportunities for mutual learning on how to combat youth unemployment. This Forum explores youth unemployment in the EU via case studies of England, Belgium, Spain, Poland and Ireland. It also examines Germany’s dual vocational training system as one potential solution.     

Rekommunalisierung: Renaissance öffentlicher Unternehmen?

The decision to provide services of general interest by public or private enterprises has to be based on the following key issue: should one refer to these services as public goods? This question cannot be answered generally but has to be addressed on a case-tocase basis. Although there are some tendencies for remunicipalisation, especially in the energy sector, empirical studies show a lack of evidence about actual remunicipalisation of public service provisions and its impacts. To explain why local governments in Germany are presently thinking about remunicipalising some services there are changing factors to be identified. However, a closer look at the changing determinants makes clear that there are other options apart from remunicipalisation. Local politicians may have many reasons for providing services by public entities. The most relevant reason is nevertheless the option to organise and govern these services which are relevant for the local community.