TOWARDS A PARADIGM OF DEMOCRATIC PARTICIPATION: CITIZEN PARTICIPATION AND CO-PRODUCTION OF PERSONAL SOCIAL SERVICES IN SWEDEN

ABSTRACT:  Many countries in Europe are now searching for new ways to engage citizens and involve the third sector in the provision and governance of social services in order to meet major demographical, political and economic challenges facing the welfare state in the 21st Century. Co-production provides a model for the mix of both public service agents and citizens who contribute to the provision of a public service. Citizen participation involves several different dimensions: economic, social, political and service specific. The extent of citizen participation varies between different providers of welfare services, as too does user and staff influence. Empirical materials from a recent study of childcare in Sweden will be used to illustrate these points. However, the role of citizens and the third sector also varies between countries and social sectors. Third sector providers facilitate citizen participation, while a glass ceiling for participation exists in municipal and for-profit providers. Moreover, co-production takes place in a political context, and can be crowded-in or crowded-out by public policy. These findings can contribute to the development of a new paradigm of participative democracy.     

Collective Action and the Sustainability of Co-Production

Abstract

This article addresses the sustainability of citizen/user participation in the provision of public services, often referred to as co-production. Co-producing public services not only promises to limit cost, but it also requires a change in the relations and behaviour of public servants and citizens/users, in order for the latter to make a long-term commitment to co-production. The article notes that Olsen proposes two logics of collective action, not just one. Focusing on small group interaction can provide an important strategy for achieving sustainable co-production, particularly of enduring welfare services. However, Ostrom criticizes too simplistic approaches based on size alone for promoting social cooperation in collective action situations. She proposes seven structural variables of importance in resolving social dilemmas. Several of them can also be perceived as factors that facilitate sustainable citizen participation in co-production. Some additional factors are also considered important for sustainable co-production, like the nature of the service itself, organizational diversity, a dialogue between the staff and clients, and facilitating small group interactions in large organizations. This article concludes that governments should develop more flexible, service-specific and organization-specific approaches for promoting co-production, rather than looking for simple ‘one size fits all’ solutions to the challenges facing public service delivery, particularly of enduring welfare services. It also proposes a research agenda on sustainable co-production.     

Third sector and co-operative services — An alternative to privatization

There is a growing political and fiscal urgency in Sweden for renewing the public sector and enriching the welfare state. Neither of the protagonists in the current debate about public or private social services takes third sector alternatives nor the potential contribution they could make into account. Three such contributions are empowerment of consumers, renewal and enrichment of working life, and enhancement of goal fulfillment in the public sector through third sector cooperative alternatives. All three of these contributions are also objectives for renewing the public sector and enriching the welfare state. Reasons for failing to consider the contribution of third sector alternatives to these objectives may be partly ideological and partly due to ignorance. But whatever the reason, there are numerous theoretical and practical implications for promoting third sector alternatives for achieving both public and private goals. This article argues that each of the three types of third sector alternatives discussed herein makes a direct contribution to one or more of these objectives, while it also contributes indirectly to the other two. There are also certain disadvantages or trade-offs associated with each alternative and objective, which are discussed herein.

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Zusammenfassung Tertiärer Sektor und gemeinnützige Dienstleistungen — eine Alternative zur Privatisierung. In Schweden gibt es einen wachsenden politischen und fiskalischen Druck für eine Erneuerung des öffentlichen Sektors und für eine Stärkung des Wohlfahrtstaates. Dabei fällt auf, da\ keiner der Protagonisten der derzeitigen Diskussion über öffentliche und private soziale Dienste die besonderen Möglichkeiten des tertiären Sektors und seine potentiellen Beiträge würdigt oder berücksichtigt. Zu diesen Beiträgen gehören die Aufwertung des Verbrauchers, die Erneuerung und Anreicherung des Arbeitslebens oder die bessere Zielerreichung im öffentlichen Sektor. Diese Beiträge sind zugleich aber auch Ziele der Erneuerung des öffentlichen Sektors und der Aufwertung des Wohlfahrtstaates. Grunde dafür, da\ die Möglichkeiten des tertiären Sektors zur Erreichung dieser Ziele übersehen werden, sind teilweise ideologischer Art, teilweise beruhen sie aber auch auf Unkenntnis. Welcher Grund auch immer ma\gebend ist — es gibt zahlreiche theoretische und praktische Gründe dafür, die Aktivitäten des tertiären Sektors zur Erreichung öffentlicher Ziele stärker zu unterstützen. Der Beitrag behandelt nicht nur, welche Aktivitäten des tertiären Sektors in welcher Form zu welchen dieser Ziele beitragen, sondern prüft auch, welche Nachteile oder trade-offs, bestehen können.

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The paper is a revised version of a paper presented at the third International Conference of the Society for the Advancement of Socio-Economics, Stockholm, June 16–19, 1991, and at the 10th Colloquium of the European Group for Organizational Studies (EGOS), Vienna, July 15–17, 1991.     

Exit,voice, and collective action in Swedish consumer policy

The development of consumer influence in Sweden is characterized by successive phases of initiation (1940–1953), expansion (1954–1971), consolidation (1972–1977), retrenchment (1978–1984), and decentralization (since 1985). For the study of consumer policy, the concepts of exit and voice, collective action, countervailing power, and integrated participation are used.It is shown that consumer policy neither belongs exclusively to the public domain, nor is simply left to the whims of the market. Its success depends in part on the participation of non-governmental organizations. However, the state's presence is essential for the survival of organized consumer interests as a countervailing power.

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Abwanderung, Widerspruch und kollektives Handeln in der schwedischen Verbraucherpolitik

Zusammenfassung Der Beitrag kennzeichnet die Entwicklung des Verbrauchereinflusses in Schweden durch mehrere Phasen. Danach liegt die Anfangsphase in den Jahren 1940 bis 1953; in die anschließenden Jahre bis 1971 fällt die Phase der Expansion; die Phase der Konsolidierung fällt in die Jahre 1972 bis 1977, die des Abbaues in die anschließenden Jahre bis 1984, und die Zeit seit 1985 wird als Dezentralisationsphase bezeichnet.Bei der Analyse der schwedischen Verbraucherpolitik werden die theoretischen Konzepte (a) von Abwanderung und Widerspruch, (b) des kollektiven Handelns, (c) der Gegenmachtbildung und (d) der integrierten Mitwirkung verwendet.Es wird gezeigt, daß die Verbraucherpolitik weder ausschließlich dem öffentlichen Bereich zugehört, noch den Launen des Marktes unterliegen kann. Ihr Erfolg setzt zumindest teilweise die Mitwirkung von nichtstaatlichen Organisationen voraus. Allerdings ist staatliche Unterstützung notwendig für das Überleben des organisierten Verbraucherinteresses als Gegenmacht.

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List of acronyms used in this article ARN Allmänna reklamationsnämnden — the Public Merchandise Complaints Board - HFI Hemmens forskningsinstitut — the Institute of Home Research - HSB Hyresgästernas Sparkasse- och Byggnadsföreningars Riksförbund — the National Association of Tenants' Savings and Building Societies - ICA Inköpscentralernas Aktiebolag - KI Konsumentinstitutet — the Institute for Consumer Information - KF Kooperativa Förbundet — the Cooperative Union and Wholesale Society - KoV Konsumentverket — the National Board for Consumer Policies - KPK Konsumentpolitiska kommittén — the Committee on Consumer Policy - KR Konsumentrådet — the National Council for Consumer Goods Research and Consumer Information - LO Landsorganisationen i Sverige — the Swedish Trade Union Confederation - LRF Lantbrukarnas riksförbund — the Federation of Swedish Farmers - MD Marknadsdomstolen — the Market Court - M SEK Million Swedish crowns - NO Näringsfrihetsombudsmannen — the Competition Ombudsman - NR Näringsfrihetsrådet — the Competition Council - OECD The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development - OK Oljekonsumenternas Förbund — the Swedish Oil Consumers' Union - PRO Pensionärernas Riksorganisation — the Swedish Pensioners' National Organization - SACO/SR Centralorganisationen — the Swedish Confederation of Professional Associations, SACO/SR - SAF Svenska arbetsgivareföreningen — the Swedish Employers' Confederation - SEK Swedish crowns - SHIO Sveriges Hantverks- och Industriorganisation — the Swedish Federation of Crafts and Small and Medium-Sized Industries - SI Sveriges Industriförbund — the Federation of Swedish Industries - SJN Statens jordbruksnämnd — the National Agricultural Marketing Board - SLV Statens livsmedelsverk — the National Food Administration - SPK Statens pris- och kartellnämnd — the National Price and Cartel Office - TCO Tjänstemännens Centralorganisation — the Central Organization of Salaried Employees - VDN Varudeklarationsnämnden — the Institute for Informative Labelling Victor A. Pestoff is a Research Associate in the Department of Business Administration, University of Stockholm, S-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden.An earlier version of this paper was presented at the International Conference on the Nonprofit Sector and the Welfare State — Development of a Research Agenda, Bad Honnef FRG, June 10–12, 1987, and at the 14th Nordic Sociology Congress, Tampere, FinIand, August 21–23, 1987.