Why are there cross-national differences in response to comparative advertising?: some mediators

This study conducted a lab experiment in the US and South Korea to test cross-national differences in response to comparative versus non-comparative Facebook advertising messages. Consistent with prior research, this study found that comparative ads resulted in more positive attitudinal responses among Americans, whereas non-comparative ads resulted in more positive attitudinal responses among Koreans. Results of multiple mediation tests showed that Americans showed more positive responses to a comparative ad message because the message was perceived to be more assertive than a non-comparative ad message, whereas Koreans showed more negative responses to a comparative ad message because the message was perceived to be less considerate than a comparative ad message. This study has important theoretical implications by testing multiple mediators for comparative ad effects; and also has practical implications for cultural adaptation marketing strategies.     

When comparative valence frame affects brand extension evaluations: the moderating role of parent-extension fit

This research examines how comparative valence frame influences brand extension acceptance when parent-extension fit matters. The results of this research show that a positive comparison-framed ad message elicits more favourable extension evaluations and greater purchase intentions than a negative comparison-framed ad message under the similar extension condition, while both positive and negative comparison-framed ad messages contribute equally to brand extension evaluations and purchase intentions under the dissimilar extension condition. The findings also suggest that perceived extension risk serves as a critical mediator that underlies the interactive impact of comparative valence frame and parent-extension fit on brand extension evaluations. Theoretical and practical implications for advertising message strategies in brand extensions are discussed.     

Health‐care product advertising: The influences of message framing and perceived product characteristics

Message framing readily lends itself to marketing communication and advertising persuasion strategies. However, past research yields contradictory and inconsistent predictions as to whether positive or negative frames are more persuasive. This study examines the most appropriate message framing to present to consumers in print advertisements for health care products. Two experimental studies are conducted to investigate the moderating effects of product functions: perceived innovativeness and perceived risk on the processing of framed advertising messages. Findings of Study 1 indicate that messages for familiar products should be framed differently depending on perceived product functions (prevention vs. detection), but gain‐framed messages are more persuasive for both new prevention and detection products. Results of Study 2 suggest that a mixed‐framed message (combining gain and loss) could enhance message effectiveness only when subjects have prior experience. Similar to the role of product function, product perceived risk is found to moderate the framing effects on message effectiveness. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Message Reframing in Advertising

Various communication techniques such as humor or two‐sided argumentation are frequently used in advertising. One technique that is common but has not been conceptualized is the deliberate change of perspective of specific product or brand attributes. Based on the reframing method used in neuro‐linguistic programming (NLP) this technique is conceptualized as message reframing, defined as a communication technique that changes the conceptual and/or emotional setting or viewpoint in relation to how a brand is experienced by placing it in a different frame that fits the same brand equally well or better. The effects of message reframing in contrast to conventional advertisements as well as in contrast to humor and two‐sided argumentation are hypothesized and tested in an experimental study. The results reveal that message reframing outplays traditional advertising techniques regarding attention toward the ad, perceived novelty, attitude toward the ad, and attitude toward the brand. Moreover, message reframing does not show the deterioration of source credibility commonly observed in humorous messages, and leads to higher attention, perceived novelty, and attitude toward the ad than two‐sided messages.     

Assertive Environmental Advertising and Reactance: Differences Between South Koreans and Americans

In three studies, the authors show that Americans and South Koreans react differently to environmental advertising campaigns featuring assertive messages that threaten autonomous freedoms. The findings uphold their hypothesis that cultural differences determine whether consumers will show reactance to assertive advertising campaigns. Study 1 demonstrates that Americans are less receptive to an assertive recycling message using imperatives such as should, must, and ought and more receptive to a nonassertive message using could, might, and worth. South Koreans do not show the reactance response. Study 2, an energy-saving campaign, conceptually replicates the findings and further shows that perceived threat to freedom mediates the effects. Study 3 uses a realistic setting (i.e., online magazine) to further support the hypothesis that cultural differences affect attitudes toward assertive messages, but adds perceived politeness as an underlying second mediator.     

The Third-Person Effect in Advertising: A Meta-Analysis

Prior meta-analyses have found evidence for differences in the third-person effect across message types, indicating that the third-person effect is a communication context-specific phenomenon. These meta-analyses do not explain why effects of the perceptual hypothesis in advertising are smaller when compared to communication in general; they do not address the broad range of consumer behavior variables that are affected by third-person perceptions; and they have not investigated whether the perceived effects on the self or on others are better predictors for behavioral responses than third-person perceptions in advertising. This meta-analysis addresses these issues and investigates the perceptual and behavioral hypotheses of the third-person effect in an advertising context. Findings indicate that third-person perceptions in product advertising are weaker when compared to other communication messages due to developments over time and the mixed gratifications provided by product advertising messages. Third-person perceptions in advertising can increase or decrease consumer behavior depending on whether the behavior is self related (e.g., body-related responses) or other related (e.g., support for regulation). Furthermore, perceived effects on self or on others are better behavioral predictors than third-person perceptions, providing managerial implications for advertising campaign pretesting.     

Stereotype Processing's Effect on the Impact of the Myth/Fact Message Format and the Role of Personal Relevance

This research examines the effectiveness of the myth/fact message format (MFMF)—a message format that first presents a common misperception as a myth then counters it with a correcting fact—within the health‐care and social marketing context of mental illness (MI). Stereotype processing theory predicts that the use of a negative aspect of the stereotype in a MFMF may further instantiate the negative belief, thereby reducing the effectiveness of the message. Conversely, using a message format that conveys only facts (i.e., new positive beliefs) without inclusion of the myth will lead to more positive attitudes. However, this effect will only be seen among people with personal relevance with MI as only they are sufficiently motivated to suppress the automatically activated stereotype and elaborate on the message. A study demonstrates that advertising utilizing a fact‐only format leads to more positive attitudes than the MFMF among people with personal relevance while people without personal relevance to MI demonstrate no differences in attitude between myth/fact and fact‐only message formats. Personal relevance had the opposite moderating effect on perceived learning. These findings suggest that the MFMF's impact on attitudes, the typical focal point of social marketing campaigns targeting misconceptions about stereotyped groups, may be ineffective. Thus, using a fact‐only format that conveys new positive beliefs in a social marketing message is recommended within the specific context of MI and may be warranted in other health‐care and social issues.     

Time heals many wounds – explaining the immediate and delayed effects of message sidedness

This study investigates the immediate and delayed effects of advertising messages including both positive and negative information. A two-sided message has a negative effect on message attitudes due to two mediating variables with trade-off effects: valence and balance. These two variables are also responsible for the alignment of the effect of sidedness on message attitudes and purchase intentions over time: the negative effects of two-sided messages are neutralized over time because negative information is reevaluated, improving the valence of the message. The results explain the negative effects of message sidedness that have been found in prior research and they show that a two-sided message in advertising is not necessarily inferior to a one-sided message despite unfavorable short-term effects.     

Determinants of Opening-Forwarding E-Mail Messages

E-mail viral marketing is today perceived as a form of electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) advertising in which firms use provocative content to motivate unpaid peer-to-peer communication of persuasive messages from identified sponsors. However, the success of this practice depends on a range of factors, including those we explore and refer to in the present research as individuals' opening and forwarding of messages. From the theoretical perspectives of the social capital theory and the processing-information approach in a persuasive context, we explore how individuals' structural, relational, and cognitive social capital; the message characteristics; individuals' motivations; and the situational context impact the intention to open and forward viral messages. The empirical analysis of the structural model provides new and relevant theoretical and business implications for advertising.     

Psychological ownership: a social marketing advertising message appeal?

The authors assessed psychological ownership as a potential persuasive advertising message appeal in social marketing efforts. Psychological ownership is a feeling of possession; it occurs when individuals feel that something is theirs even though they cannot hold legal title to it. Interestingly, the first study indicated advertising messages that generate psychological ownership yielded less favourable attitudes, word of mouth and willingness to pay price premiums among women. Women responded more negatively to messages that attempted to induce psychological ownership than to neutral messages. The adverse responses of women prompted the second study, in which both the psychological ownership message and cognitive capacity were manipulated. Results indicate that, in a limited cognitive capacity condition, women responded similarly towards higher psychological ownership and neutral advertising messages. Further, these effects were mediated by inferences of manipulative intent and not feelings of guilt. Theoretical and managerial implications are offered for marketers attempting to use psychological ownership as an advertising message strategy and gender as a segmentation strategy.     

When transparency pays off: Enticing sceptical consumers with two-sided advertising

It has been generally assumed that higher levels of scepticism towards advertising invariably lead to higher resistance to advertising appeals. The main purpose of the present research was to examine whether highly sceptical consumers' resistance can be overcome by appeals associated with higher credibility. We tested our hypotheses using message sidedness as an advertising variable that has been associated with higher (two-sided) versus lower (one-sided) credibility. In three experimental studies, we examined more versus less sceptical consumers' responses to two- versus one-sided appeals. We found that two-sided messages are more effective in increasing purchase intentions, through enhanced credibility, but only for consumers who are more sceptical of advertising. Less sceptical consumers trust both messages equally and their purchase intentions are not affected by the type of message. Importantly, we also showed that highly sceptical consumers trust two-sided appeals as much as their less sceptical counterparts. The study contributes to the literature on advertising and persuasion knowledge by showing that advertising scepticism does not elicit a single response tendency, as originally conceptualized. Rather, advertising scepticism is more consistent with the underpinnings of the Persuasion Knowledge Model, in that higher knowledge about persuasion tactics aids consumers to better cope with, and not invariably resist persuasion attempts. We conclude that transparency pays off because it may entice a more sceptical audience and, at the same time, it does not harm less sceptical consumers' trust and purchase intentions.     

The Paradox: An Application of a Clinical Psychological Concept to Marketing

This article has taken a concept from the clinical psychological and psychiatric literature, paradoxical communication, and demonstrated how the concept could be utilized in an advertising context. Paradoxical communication requires a relationship in which the receiver of the message is powerless relative to the sender, and the receiver is not able to communicate about the message to the sender. This relationship may be inherent in mass media. Finally, paradoxical messages demand behavior that, by its very nature, can only be spontaneous (e.g., “I want you to dominate me”). Paradoxical messages have been said to lead to schizophrenia in children and also to be therapeutic in treating symptomatic behavior. From these two diverse situations, two alternative paradoxical messages were developed for use in mass media advertising contexts.     

Go green: how to influence the perceived effectiveness of a green product?

Across two studies, this research elucidates on which green messages in advertising are most effective in influencing the perceived effectiveness of green products by examining the moderating role of environmental consciousness. This study further considers a mechanism underlying the interaction between green messages and environmental consciousness on brand attitude with the perceived effectiveness of green products. The results show that when environmentally conscious individuals are exposed to abstract and distant temporal messages, they will report greater perceptions of a green product's effectiveness and brand attitude than for concrete and proximal temporal messages. In contrast, less environmentally conscious respondents will not have different responses to the abstract/concrete and distant/proximal temporal messages. Furthermore, the perceived effectiveness of a green product mediates the interaction between green messages and environmental consciousness for predicting brand attitudes. With an understanding of how environmentally conscious individuals evaluate green advertising, marketers can better understand how to promote their green products more effectively.     

Anti-counterfeiting advertisements for luxury brands in the post pandemic era: Roles of message type,visual presentation mode,and self-construal

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to a significant increase in the demand for counterfeit luxury products, and the black market is expected to grow continuously in the post pandemic era. The present research aimed to examine how verbal and visual aspects of anti-counterfeiting advertising affect the purchase of counterfeit luxury brands. For the verbal element, we included two types of anti-counterfeiting messages: value-expressive and social-adjustive. For the visual element, two modes of visual presentation were compared; participants were presented either with images of counterfeit products only, or with images of both counterfeit and genuine products. The results from two experiments demonstrated that both variables interacted with consumers' self-construal in determining the effects of anti-counterfeiting advertising. Participants with independent self-construal expressed a lower intention to purchase counterfeit luxury products when a value-expressive message was used or when only an image of the counterfeit was included. In contrast, participants with interdependent self-construal exhibited a lower purchase intention when a social-adjustive message was utilized or when images of both the counterfeit and authentic brands were presented side-by-side. Moreover, anti-counterfeiting messages influenced participants’ purchase intentions through the perceptions of social-adjustive and value-expressive benefits, whereas the effect of presentation mode was mediated by the fluency experienced by the participants when processing the advertisement. Our research findings contribute theoretically to the literature on social motives, evaluation mode, comparative advertising, and self-construal, and will assist practitioners in developing effective communication strategies to reduce the consumption of counterfeit luxury brands.     

Enhancing Recall and Recognition for Brand Names and Body Copy: A Mixed-Language Approach

As the inclusion of foreign languages in advertisements is a growing global trend, this research examines how language choice may influence important advertising outcome measures within a South Korean advertising context. Specifically, the study aims to explore how foreign and local languages influence recall and recognition for brand name and body copy messages. The interaction of using two languages in an advertisement, to convey different elements of the ad may secure varied levels of attention and comprehension. The findings suggest that recall and recognition are significantly affected by the language presented. An ad presenting a brand name in the foreign language (English Roman alphabet) with the body copy message in the local language (Hangul) is an effective strategy to enhance recall and recognition of the brand name and the ad message within the Korean youth market. The results of this study expand linguistic theory within an advertising context while also providing international advertisers with useful tips when operating in a multinational marketplace. Future research avenues are discussed.     

The Effect of Consumer Persuasion Knowledge on Scarcity Appeal Persuasiveness

Past research identifies demand-related scarcity appeals and supply-related scarcity appeals as effective persuasive influences on consumer behavior. The present research uses a persuasion knowledge approach to examine the persuasiveness of demand- versus supply-related scarcity appeals in advertising messages. Study 1 shows that supply-related scarcity appeal ad messages are less likely to activate persuasion knowledge than demand-related scarcity appeal messages. Study 2 demonstrates that message specificity moderates this effect. In line with an elaboration likelihood model perspective, results show that stating the appeal in specific (versus vague) terms decreases the persuasiveness of supply-related scarcity appeal ad messages.     

手机短信广告的法律规制

手机短信广告是一种新型的广告形式,具有发送方便快捷、成本低廉、投放准确、接受率高等优点。目前,手机短信广告存在着发布主体混乱、虚假和违法短信广告泛滥、侵犯手机用户合法权益的现象严重等问题。为此,应通过完善短信广告相关法律规范、加大短信广告监管力度、强化通信运营商监控职责、健全用户权利保障机制、转变短信广告经营模式、强化短信广告行业自律等措施来促进手机短信广告的健康发展。     

Exploring attractive messages in group package tour newspaper advertisements

The group package tour (GPT) is one of the main modes of outbound travel in many Asian countries and areas. In practice, most of the travel agencies utilise the newspaper to promote their GPTs. Although prior newspaper travel advertisements provided useful information, only single or a number of advertising messages were considered. In order to fill this gap, the primary objective of this study was to find out what types of message are attractive to the customers in the GPT advertisement from a holistic perspective. Both qualitative and quantitative methods, with 400 usable samples, were conducted for data analysis. Attractive messages for three different destinations (China, Japan and Thailand) with six clusters were profiled at component level. The findings reveal that messages of appeal, text, size and format design represent over 78% of the total percentage. Further implications for designing attractive messages in terms of a destination or cluster perspective are discussed.     

Trends in Total Advertising Expenditure In 10 Countries, 1970–1983: America,Australasia and the Far East

The use and relative effectiveness of comparative advertising has been extensively studied and reported on in the marketing and advertising literature. However, few studies have specifically dealt with this topic from the advertising practitioner's perspective. This paper reports the findings of an empirical investigation aimed at determining some of the factors and underlying perceptions contributing to American advertisers' and agency representatives' attitudes toward comparative advertising. Often-cited criticisms/concerns about comparative advertising as well as past and future plans to use a comparative format were specifically considered.