Shared ecological knowledge and wetland values: A case study

The estimation of wetlands’ non-use values to build up a total economic evaluation can be based on stated preference methods, which derives from the standard economic model that assumes a rational assessment of the consequence of preferences on personal utility. The paper describes the nature of the citizens’ shared ecological knowledge of wetlands functions, the relation of the shared ecological knowledge with the official/normative knowledge, and the relation between the motivations outlined by the shared ecological knowledge and those expected by the standard economic model. The results demonstrate that economic preferences are driven by multiple motivations well rooted in the social nature of shared ecological knowledge, and not by simply consequential motivations. In this case study, social knowledge of wetlands’ ecological functions is proportionally related to people's living proximity to those wetlands. Unexpectedly, shared ecological knowledge of historically well-known and critically important services, like the hydraulic and hydrologic services, has also been diminishing. Furthermore, there is a partial or clear-cut separation between official/normative knowledge and the shared ecological knowledge on crucial aspects like wetlands’ climate change role. This approach helps to construct a motivational framework to derive values that are useful as long as they allow accounting for a complex socio-cultural capital in the public decision making process.     

The Political Economv of Svstematic Government Intervention in Agriculture

There is a systematic pattern of government policy intervention in agriculture by developed and developing countries. This paper attempts to provide a political economy explanation of these policy interventions. A simple political economy model with two interest groups is developed following Becker and Gardner. This framework brings interest group competition formally into the political preference fitnction. In this model, interest groups' competitive lobbying expenditures cause changes in policies by changing the relative political weights. An empirical political economy model is specified and estimated for wheat using data for 12 developed and 13 developing countries from 1958 to 1987. The results suggest that the labor productivity ratio, agriculture's international terms of trade and the share of food in disposable income are the most important factors influencing the systematic subsidization of wheat producers in developed countries, while the factor endowment ratio, agriculture's international terms of trade and the share of imports financed by agricultural exports are the most important factors contributing to the systematic exploitation of wheat producers in developing countries. The results also suggest that the incentive mechanism in agricultural price policy changes gradually. Il existe un profil systématique des interventions de l'État en agriculture chez les pays industrialisés et chez les pays en développement. L'objet de l'article est de dégager une explication d'économie politique pour ces interventions. Lln modèle simple d'économie politique comportant deux groupes d'intérêt est construit selon la méthode de Becker et Gardner. Le modèle intègre la concurrence des groupes d'intérêt dans lafonction préférence des politiques. Dans ce modèle, les dépenses de lobbying des groupes d'intérêt concurrentiels peuvent provoquer des changements dans les politiques en modifiant le poids politique actuel. Un modèle empirique d'économie politique est construit et évalué pour le bléà partir de données portant sur 12 pays industrialistés et sur 13 pays en développement, de 1958 à 1987. Les résultats laissent voir que le ratio productivité-travail, les conditions du commerce agricole internutional et la part de l'alimentation dans le revenu disponible sont les facteurs qui influent le plus sur le subventionnement systematique des producteurs de blé dans les pays industrialisés. En revanche, dans les pays en développement, le ratio dotation en facteurs (terre agricole par ouvrier agricole), les conditions du commerce international en agriculture et la part des importations financée par les exportations agricoles sont celles qui contribuent le plus à l'expoitation systématique des producteurs de blé. Les résultats font voir aussi que les mécanisrnes d'incitation attachés aux politiques d'établissement des prix agricoles changent graduellement.     

Wheat Policy Options in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Case of Zimbabwe

Like many countries in sub-Saharan Africa, Zimbabwe is experiencing rapid growth in wheat consumption and imports. Policy makers in Zimbabwe and elsewhere must decide whether increased domestic wheat production might reduce dependency on imports and at the same time contribute to economic efficiency and food security goals. The domestic resource cost framework was used to assess Zimbabwe's comparative advantage among six major irrigated crops and to measure the effects of current government policies on producer incentives. The results indicate that irrigated wheat production represents an efficient use of Zimbabwe's resources during times of abundant rainfall, but the nation enjoys a comparative advantage in tobacco, maize, and cotton production during times of water scarcity. Existing agricultural policies provide disincentives for commercial farmers, because private profitability is less than social profitability for the major irrigated crops. However, this tax occurs across all commodities with similar incidence, so that the private incentives among crops are not greatly distorted from their social pattern. Sensitivity analysis confirms the robustness of these findings under a range of possible future economic and political developments. The domestic resource cost approach used in this study provides an operational method for measuring comparative advantage and should be of interest to policy analysts throughout sub-Saharan Africa.     

The rise and fall of public sector plant breeding in the United Kingdom: a causal chain model of basic and applied research and diffusion

This paper examines the barley and wheat breeding programmes of the Plant Breeding Institute (PBI), which was the most successful public plant breeding institute in the UK, until privatization in 1987. The PBI's shares in barley and wheat seed sales are explained, showing that the success with barley was largely a matter of serendipity, whereas the wheat programme followed a more normal pattern. For wheat, the causal chain, or recursive, model decomposes the well-documented link between research expenditures and increases in agricultural productivity into three stages. These are the effects of R&D expenditures on basic research output, measured by publications, the effect of publications and applied R&D expenditures on trial plot yields, and the diffusion of the trial plot technologies, which raises yields on farms. Applying the model to the FBI's wheat varieties allows estimation of the lag structures. In contrast to the results for aggregate agricultural research, for a single plant breeding programme alone there is a considerable lead time before there is any response, followed by a lag distribution only a few years long. The returns to the R&D investments are calculated from the causal chain model, from single equation estimates and by evaluating the yield advantage of the PBI varieties. All three approaches give consistent results, which show that the returns to barley and wheat alone were sufficient to support the entire PBI budget and still give rates of return to applied research of between 14 and 25%. The return to the basic science expenditures of the John Innes Institute has a lower bound of 17%, but must have been even higher than for the PBI if the other Institutes were taken into account. The paper concludes by commenting on the effects of the privatization of the PBI.     

The growing importance of the former USSR countries in world agricultural markets

The major countries of the former Soviet Union—specifically Russia, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan—are becoming increasingly important in world agricultural markets. The two main developments are that this region has become a large grain exporter, especially of wheat and barley, and Russia a big agricultural importer, especially of meat. These trends should continue for the next decade. However, policies to expand the livestock sector could mitigate these developments, as increased domestic meat production would reduce both meat imports and surplus feed grain for export. Also, further growth in the region's grain exports will require improvement in the infrastructure for storing and transporting grain.     

The Impact of Biofuel Policies on Crop Acreages in Germany and France

A major concern about biofuels is that increasing biofuel feedstock demand reduces availability of crops for food and feed leading to higher food prices. This paper investigates relations between biofuel policies and prices of rapeseed, the major feedstock used for biodiesel production in Europe, and the impact of rapeseed prices on crop acreages in Germany and France. Biodiesel is an important biofuel in Europe, and Germany and France are the largest biodiesel producers in Europe. First, the various biofuel policies in Germany and France are discussed, followed by an analysis of their effects on rapeseed prices. Although theory indicates that such effects exist, we could not find empirical evidence for them. Second, using regional land use panel data from Germany and France we investigate empirically whether crop shares have been affected by rapeseed prices in the period 2000–2015 and whether these price effects changed because of biofuel policy changes. Results show that wheat shares in Germany and France did respond to rapeseed prices, but barley shares did not. Moreover, mandatory blending introduced in Germany in 2007 and production quotas introduced in France in 2005 led to a stronger effect of rapeseed prices on wheat shares, but again did not affect barley shares.     

Sources of EC horticultural import growth from developing countries

A decomposition analysis of horticultural trade flows is carried out to identify the main sources of change in EC horticultural imports from different LDC regions. Sources of change are associated with each region's international competitiveness, the relative openness of the EC market, the degree of trade preference enjoyed by the region, and the EC global import growth. The main contribution to the LDC export growth of fruit and vegetables to EC between 1975–79; and 1985–89 is found to be attributable to the global import growth effect. However, it has been significantly counteracted by the negative effect of a declining share of non-EC suppliers as a group. Marked interregional differences in changes in regional preferences show a lack of a strong correlation between LDC export performance and the existence of preferential trade agreements with EC. While the potential for LDC export growth to EC is clear, the results seem to indicate that in general EC protection policies have adversely affected import growth from LDCs. Various factors influencing LDC export performance in horticultural products are discussed. Apart from EC protection policies and changes in trade preferences, domestic supply factors are of significance in explaining export growth, including a liberal trading environment, but also specific policies to promote exports of horticultural products. While non-price competition weakens the discriminatory effect of preferential tariffs, there is a pressing need for developing countries to adapt to the demands of the European distribution system relating to quality, grades, and regularity of supplies.     

Selfishness,altruism, and inequality aversion toward consumers and farmers

One hypothesis explaining the persistence of farm programs in the United States is the public's altruism toward farmers. We utilize economic experiments to identify the motivations of selfishness, altruism, and inequality aversion toward anonymous members of the general population and toward different types of farmers. We find that people are generally less selfish and more altruistic toward small farmers than other members of the population. We also find that (i) people are more averse to inequality in a market‐like setting as compared to a nonmarket setting, (ii) there is significant heterogeneity across people in terms of other‐regarding preferences, and (iii) experimental choices accurately predict preferences for “real‐world” income re‐distribution policies that entail giving up one's own money to benefit farmers, but fail to predict preferences for policies that redistribute others’ incomes.     

Valuing a Natura 2000 network site to inform land use options using a discrete choice experiment: An illustration from the Basque Country

One of the main problems that public institutions face in the management of protected areas, such as the European Natura 2000 network, is determining how to design and implement sustainable management plans that account for the wide range of marketed and non-marketed benefits they provide to society. This paper presents an application of a stated preference valuation approach aimed at evaluating the social preferences of the population of the Basque Country, Spain, for the key attributes of a regional Natura 2000 network site. According to our results, individuals’ willingness-to-pay (WTP) is higher for attributes associated with non-use values (native tree species and biodiversity conservation) than for attributes associated with use values (agricultural development and commercial forestry). The paper concludes that management policies related to Natura 2000 network sites should account for both for the importance of non-use values and the heterogeneity of the population's preferences in order to minimize potential land use conflicts.     

THE ECONOMIC POLITY OF FARM POLICY

A review of the ‘new political economy’ of agricultural policies includes models of social income maximising governments, collective action by ‘pressure groups’, and the interaction between politicians and voters. An alternative explanation for Olson's “social by-product” theory for why farmers received massive subsidies as a large group is also presented. An explanation for various patterns of farm policy interventions is given, including why rich countries subsidise and poor countries tax farmers. Finally, the role of public research expenditures and the interaction with commodity policy is explored.     

Public preferences for pasture landscapes in Germany—A latent class analysis of a nationwide discrete choice experiment

Biodiversity, landscape aesthetics and grazing livestock have considerable relevance for agricultural production, however rarely considered in public landscape preferences research. This paper studies public preferences for pasture usage by the means of a discrete choice experiment using a representative sample of 449 individuals from Germany. Graphical representations of the choice sets were used to assess the preferences for the presence of livestock and typical pasture landscape elements. To account for preference heterogeneity, the paper utilised a latent-class logit model. Four different latent classes were identified. The results showed different preferences between the latent classes, not only in terms of the magnitude of the estimated parameters, but also in terms of the parameter signs. This indicated that there are multiple types of preferred pasture landscapes. Within the groups, the preference for livestock presence did not depend on its density. Furthermore, it was found that point elements were more important for the landscape preference than linear elements. The class membership probabilities were influenced by multiple sociodemographic variables, including the individual’s residence.     

CHANGES IN CEREAL PRODUCTION AND YIELD VARIABILITY ON FARMS IN SOUTH EAST ENGLAND

Data from 16 wheat growers and 18 barley growers in South East England were investigated for changes in variability of production and yield between the periods 1964-74 and 1975-84. Sixteen per cent of the increase in variability of wheat production was due to changes in yield variances and covariances. The increase in variability of barley production was not statistically significant. Variability of yield increased for both wheat and barley. Wheat yields became more positively correlated between farms, but barley yields did not. The results for wheat were consistent with the hypothesis of an increase in the number of controlled factors in the production process. Particularly important was thought to be the use of fungicides in the control of many cereal diseases. Increased heterogeneity of the barley crop may have contributed to the decline in the number of between-farm correlations for that crop.     

Voting for Environmental Policy Under Income and Preference Heterogeneity

We examine the design of policies for promoting the consumption of green products under preference and income heterogeneity using organic food as an example. Two instruments are considered: a price subsidy for organic food products and a tax on conventional products. When the income differences and social benefits of organic farming are large, these factors dominate in shaping the policy preferences of the majority. In this case, the environmental policies preferred by the majority tend to be stricter than socially optimal policies. However, when income differences are small, policy preferences are more directly determined by tastes for organic products and the majority may prefer no intervention.     

Impact of the US–EC price war on major wheat exporters' shares of the Chinese market

China is both the world's largest producer and consumer of wheat. In an attempt to gain a larger slice of the important Chinese market, both the European Community and the United States have offered China subsidised wheat. In addition, other exporters have offered attractive credit arrangements to China. The objective of this paper is to measure the overall impact of these policies on each exporter's share of the Chinese market. To that end, an improved version of the constant market shares model is applied to data on Chinese wheat imports in the 1980's. The results indicate that the United States has been outperforming the other exporters since subsidised US wheat sales were authorised for China in 1987. The implications of the analysis for the smaller exporters and international wheat trade are discussed.     

Convergent validity between revealed and stated recreation demand data: Some empirical evidence from the Basque Country,Spain

In a travel cost exercise, reported past visits to mount Jaizkibel, a natural area located in the Basque Country (Spain), are compared for convergent validity to stated intended future trips under the assumption that the natural resource's conditions will remain the same. In line with the results obtained by other studies, the empirical evidence of this application suggests that revealed preferences (RP) and stated preferences (SP) do not produce consistent data, i.e. do not achieve convergent validity. The paper deals with the convergent validity literature in continuous-choice studies by using two-staged count data models for recreation demand. Differences in preference structures and welfare estimates are tested assuming both common and different data generating processes for the RP and SP data.     

Social legitimacy issues in the provision of non-commodity outputs from Rural Development Programs

This article deals with the issues of welfare measurement and preference heterogeneity for Rural Development Programs (RDPs) in Cantabria, Spain. People from urban and rural localities would benefit from improvements in the provision of public goods and externalities promoted by RDPs, but their preferences may be quite different. Heterogeneous preferences between urban and rural dwellers would hinder the proper estimation and aggregation of social welfare. Results show significant differences between rural and urban residents. However, the social legitimacy of RDPs, in terms of positive welfare changes, would prevail in both rural and urban settings. The article concludes that accurately measuring social welfare values and explaining preference patterns is a key issue for developing effective multifunctional policies.     

Aggregate measures of support in the Uruguay round: Application to the EC cereals sector

Abstract

This paper examines the use of aggregate measures of support (AMSs) in the proposals for the long‐term reform of agricultural support tabled by the major participants in the Uruguay Round. The USA, the Cairns Group (CG) and the EC have proposed measures based on the OECD's Producer Subsidy Equivalent (PSE), adjusted to take account of only the most trade‐distorting policies, and using a fixed reference price to calculate the extent of market price support. If the proposed ‘adjusted PSEs’ are used, the reductions in internal support levels in the EC cereals sector from the base periods to 1995 range from 8 billion ECU under the US proposal to 4.5 billion ECU under the EC proposal. The resulting ‘producer prices’ would be almost 20% higher under the EC proposal than under the other two. In terms of percentage PSEs, support to farmers would be around 20 to 25 percentage points below present levels under the US and CG proposals and around 18 percentage points lower under the EC's plan.     

Agricultural policy adjustments in the Korean rice economy

A political preference function is used to endogenize government actions in a simultaneous equation model for South Korean rice policy. The effects of economic changes on rice pricing decisions through estimated political weights are tested to improve our understanding of policy adjustments in that country and open the way for further research in East Asia.     

Measuring the relative importance of preferences for country of origin in China, France, Niger, and the United States

Recent labeling policies in developed countries place new focus on origin labeling, especially country of origin labeling, for a variety of food products. It is not clear if this new emphasis on origin is the result of more ethnocentric consumer preferences for food. We measure consumer preferences for country of origin in four different international locations and one domestic control location using a conjoint experiment to test the null hypotheses that consumers do not have stronger own-country preferences. In addition, we compare the relative importance of consumer preferences for origin to their preferences for genetically modified food and pesticide-free production using attribute coefficients from within location ordered probit models. The study was conducted in China, France, Niger, and the United States. We find consumers tend to prefer food from their own location indicating ethnocentric tendencies do play a role in shaping country-of-origin preferences. Country of origin is generally less important to consumers than genetically modified food content and pesticide use in food production.     

Assessing farmers’ risk preferences and their determinants in a marginal upland area of Vietnam: a comparison of multiple elicitation techniques

We examine the consistency of risk preference measures based on eight hypothetical elicitation methods and a lottery game applied to smallholder farmers in a marginal upland environment in Vietnam. Using these measures, we identify influencing factors of risk aversion via regression analysis, whereby unlike previous studies, we include several proxies of social capital such as social networks and norms. Data were collected from household heads and spouses separately in a random sample of 300 households. Although correlations between most of the various risk preference measures are all statistically highly significant, most are weak. On average, respondents have a high degree of risk aversion and specific characteristics—gender, age, idiosyncratic shocks, education, social norms, network‐reliance with extended family, and connections to local authorities—are significant determinants of risk preferences across most elicitation methods, whereas others—the household's dependency ratio, wealth, and covariate shocks—are significant in a few methods only. The explanatory power of the models is limited, indicating that other factors are likely to be of greater importance in determining risk preferences. The results can help target safety nets, encourage investments, and lead to the development of more applicable methods for assessing risk preferences of smallholders in developing countries.