Impact of airports on regional accessibility and social development

This study compares the impact that two airports in Norway have on regional accessibility and social development. One of the airports is a small-sized airport that serves a relatively remote region and has direct air services to other regions in Norway but not to the capital city of Oslo or to destinations abroad. The other is a medium-sized airport that serves a relatively accessible region and has direct air services to the capital city of Oslo and to a number of destinations in Norway and abroad. The study compares opinions of residents that live in the respective regions and is based on the findings of a postal survey that was completed by over 2000 residents. The Independent Samples t-test is used to investigate the significance of any differences in opinion. Significant differences were found to reflect the size and scope of services available at the airports and specific characteristics of the regions that they serve. Residents in the more remote region have a significantly higher frequency of travel by air to destinations in Norway but a significantly lower frequency of travel by air to destinations abroad. Trip frequency for holidays is significantly higher in the region that has an airport with direct international air services while trip frequency to access health services is significantly higher in the region that has limited local health services. The airport is significantly more important for resident location and retention in the remoter region.     

The role of transportation accessibility in regional economic resilience

Whereas the importance of transportation for economic growth is widely acknowledged, past studies on the resilience of regions to economic shocks have not given explicit attention to the role of transportation accessibility on building robust regional economies. This exploratory study examines the regional performance in six U.S. states during the last recession (2008–2009) and post-recession (2010–2014) and evaluates its association with the transportation infrastructure. To account for spatial dependence and interactions, a exploratory spatial data analysis (ESDA), a global spatial autoregressive model, and a local Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) are employed. Results show that, after controlling for other key aspects of resilience, such as industrial diversity and human capital, the global relationships between rail density, access to intermodal services, and access to local and regional markets were positively associated with regional performance (measured as competitive effect) during the recession. Similarly, positive regional performance before the recession period was associated with positive performance during the recession. The local spatial analysis, however, shows that the associations between the explanatory variables and regional performance vary significantly across space. The analysis and results of this study can contribute to a better understanding of the complex interactions between economic resilience and transportation infrastructure, and guide the development of policies and practices designed to strengthen the ability of regions to be resilient to economic shocks.     

Thinking regional and acting local: Assessing the joint influence of local and regional accessibility on commute mode in Montreal,Canada

Accessibility indicators, measuring the ease of reaching destinations via a specific mode of transport, are increasingly used in planning and research as they support integrated land use and transport planning. Research has shown that increased local accessibility (walkability for example) is associated with an increase in walking mode share, whereas increase in public transport accessibility is associated with a greater use of public transport. Yet, while public transport agencies are promoting the combination of active and public transport options to address one's diverse mobility needs, local and regional accessibility are rarely addressed together in research or practice. This research aims to determine the joint influence of local and regional accessibility on the transport mode used for work trips in the Montreal metropolitan region, while controlling for socio-demographic characteristics. Data come from the 2013 Origin-Destination survey 2016 Canadian census, 2017 public transport data DMTI Enhanced points of interests. A multinomial logistic model is used to understand how local and regional accessibility are associated with walking, cycling or taking public transport to work across individuals. The results demonstrate that increases in both local and regional accessibility are associated with a higher probability of using sustainable modes. The predicted probabilities suggest that local accessibility is more closely associated with a decrease in car use. This study sheds light on the interaction between local and regional land use and transport systems and is of relevance to planners and policymakers wishing to develop neighborhoods that support the use of sustainable modes.     

Robust accessibility: Measuring accessibility based on travelers' heterogeneous strategies for managing travel time uncertainty

Uncertainties in travel times due to traffic congestion and delay are risks for drivers and public transit users. To avoid undesired consequences such as losing jobs or missing medical appointments, people can manage the risks of missing on-time arrivals to destinations using different strategies, including leaving earlier to create a safety margin and choosing routes that have more reliable rather than fastest travel times. This research develops a general analytical framework for measuring accessibility considering automobile or public transit travelers' heterogeneous strategies for dealing with travel time uncertainty. To represent different safety margin plans, we use effective travel time (expected time + safety margin), given specified on-time arrival probabilities. Heterogeneity in routing strategy is addressed using different Pareto-optimal routes with two main criteria: faster travel time vs. higher reliability. Based on various safety margin and routing strategy combinations, we examine how accessibility changes under varying safety margin plans and routing strategies. Also, we define and measure robust accessibility: geographic regions that are accessible regardless of the safety margin planning and routing strategy. Robust accessibility can provide a conservative and reasonable view of accessibility under travel time uncertainty. To demonstrate the applicability of the methods, we carry out an empirical study on measuring the impacts of new transit service on healthcare accessibility in a deprived neighborhood in Columbus, Ohio, USA.     

A behavioral model of accessibility based on the number of available opportunities

The paper proposes a new behavioral definition of accessibility as the expected number of opportunities “available” for a subject to perform an activity, where “available” means that the opportunity i) is perceived as a potential alternative to satisfy one's needs, and ii) it can be reached given the spatiotemporal constraints of the individual's schedule. A new class of accessibility models is derived in accordance with the above definition, exploiting the strengths of both utility-based and opportunity-based models, and explicitly incorporating spatiotemporal constraints which may limit the availability of perceived opportunities. The proposed model is formulated for both active and passive accessibility, does not suffer from reflexivity issues, supports both trip-based and activity-based formulations, and scales up from individual to spatially aggregated opportunities, taking into account effectively the different ways of perceiving opportunities. Moreover, the resulting accessibility measure has a straightforward interpretation, being expressed in physical units, and is comparable across different locations. Performances of the proposed model in reproducing the active accessibility to cinemas in the Naples metropolitan area (Italy) are compared to those of a traditional isochrone-based measure and a distance–decay model. For this aim, measurements of individuals' perceived cinemas were gathered through a survey, and adopted for the calibration of both the accessibility models. Calibration results show that the proposed model outperforms both the traditional isochrone-based measure and a distance–decay model calibrated against the same dataset, better reproducing both the quantity and spatial distribution of perceived opportunities.     

The impact of regional commuter trains on property values: Price segments and income

Using single-family home transactions and commuter rail data from 2014, we estimate hedonic price models using two-stage spatial quantile regression to capture variations across price segments. The results are significant and robust across different model specifications and across the different price segments, but the price effect of proximity to a commuter train station is strongest in lower price segments of the housing market. These price segment effects are also valid for proximity to highways, as well as for several other property attributes. Results also reveal that the largest of the three regional labour markets in our study has a greater effect on prices. Furthermore, the study introduces property-specific neighbourhood data from raster data, showing that population density has a negative impact on property prices at the neighbourhood level while population size has a positive impact at the municipal level.     

Perceived accessibility: What it is and why it differs from calculated accessibility measures based on spatial data

Accessibility is usually evaluated using indicators calculated from spatial data. However, perceived accessibility, defined as the perceived potential to participate in spatially dispersed opportunities, is often poorly reflected by these calculated measures. This paper sets out to explain the mechanisms that lead to these mismatches. A conceptual model is constructed to establish what factors shape perceived accessibility. A schematic framework shows that mismatches between a calculated indicator and perceptions can stem from inaccuracies in awareness as well as from inaccuracies in the measure if the measure fails to take account of the subjective evaluations of accessibility components. When evaluating the performance of land-use and transport system configurations, calculated measures based on spatial and transport data only serve as proxies for how accessibility is actually experienced. This paper argues that bringing perceived accessibility to the fore of accessibility-based planning, by acknowledging and evaluating potential mismatches with calculated accessibility indicators, will advance the evolution from mobility-based to accessibility-based planning.     

Short-term forecasts on individual accessibility in bus system based on neural network model

Precise forecasts on individual accessibility in bus system can help make policies to accommodate fluctuating bus travel demand and promoting social equity. In this study, we propose a three-stage method for short-term forecasts on individual accessibility in bus system based on neural network (NN) model. In the first stage, a NN model is designed to tackle the nonlinear mapping between passengers' bus trip appearances in historical periods and those in the predicted period. A rate function, which considers bus trip generation rates of passengers, is then applied using outputs of the designed NN model. In the second stage, probabilities of origin-destinations (ODs) chosen by passengers in the predicted period are calculated. In the third stage, land use information combined with results of previous two stages are used to obtain the individual accessibility in bus system in the predicted period. Compared to individual accessibility calculated by real data, it is found that the average errors of predicted results by the proposed method in weekdays and at weekends are only 8.37% and 10.13%, respectively. The results also demonstrate the capability of combining a NN model, traffic data and land use information to forecast the future spatial distribution of individual accessibility in transport system.     

Mountaineering in Cuba: improvement of true accessibility as an opportunity for regional development of communities outside the tourism enclaves

Mass tourism began in the Caribbean during the middle of the twentieth century. Unfortunately, increasing competition and a change in the motivation of tourists now force the authorities who manage these regions to introduce a new tourism offer that is not based directly on either the 3S (Sun, Sand, and Sea) or 3E (Entertainment, Excitement, Education) model. Hiking, trekking, and climbing, defined as mountaineering, might be one of these. This paper examines the potential for mountaineering in Cuba by verifying its accessibility for tourists. The assessment is based on a framework of true accessibility, which consists of two factors: (1) destination accessibility and (2) real access. Our results show that mountaineering in Cuba should be considered to be one of the key contributors to the development, prosperity, and well-being of all stakeholders, and especially for the communities outside the tourism enclaves.     

Exploring the impacts of land use by service coverage and station-level accessibility on rail transit ridership

In this study, we employ spatial regression analysis to empirically investigate the impacts of land use, rail service coverage, and rail station accessibility on rail transit ridership in the city of Seoul and the surrounding metropolitan region. Our analyses suggest that a rail transit service coverage boundary of 500 m provides the best fit for estimating rail transit ridership levels. With regard to land use, our results confirm that density is positively related to rail transit ridership within a 750 m radius of each station. In contrast, land use diversity is not associated with rail transit ridership. We also found that station-level accessibility is as important as land use for explaining rail transit ridership levels. Finally, we conclude that development density and station-level accessibility measures such as the number of station entrances or exits and the number of bus routes at the station are the most important and consistent factors for promoting rail transit ridership.     

Measuring the long-distance accessibility of Italian cities

Long-distance accessibility is a crucial element for economic development and for territorial cohesion. To be revealing, however, a measure of accessibility must not only consider the distance or travel time of a single mode, but should include the fares, the frequency and the interchanges of all available modes.The paper aims to address whether and where there is an accessibility problem between Italian regions, through a comprehensive measure of accessibility covering the entire Italian territory. The measure used in the paper is potential accessibility, with an exponential decay impedance function. Different from similar studies, this one gives a more in-depth definition of impedance parameters due to the availability of a transport model that includes the entire Italian long-distance supply (roads, coaches, long-distance rail services, air services, and ferries). The opportunities at destination are proxied by population, and private and public sector employees.The main outputs are detailed maps of accessibility that are significantly more realistic than using simple infrastructure indicators or single-mode measures. In addition, some policy conclusions are drawn in terms of past and future investment policies.     

铁路客货运输作业成本计算方法研究

阐述铁路行业运用作业成本管理法进行运输成本计算的方法、步骤,重点分析针对铁路运输特点的运营作业设计、作业的支出归集,并给出了客货运输成本的具体计算方法,这一方法对于铁路运输企业及管理部门准确把握客、货运输产品成本,科学、合理制定经营决策具有实际意义。     

Evaluating the European added value of TEN-T projects: a methodological proposal based on spatial spillovers, accessibility and GIS

This paper develops a methodology for calculating the European value added value (EVA) generated by transport infrastructure projects. This approach is particularly useful for evaluating projects in the framework of Trans-European Transport Networks (TEN-T), although it may also be used in trans-national projects in other geographical areas. The methodology is based on the appraisal of spatial spillovers generated by trans-national projects by using accessibility indicators (access to markets) and Geographical Information Systems (GIS). Projects are split into sections and spillover effects of each section are then computed. The sections that produce a high proportion of spillovers in relation to internal benefits generate a high EVA. Additionally, indicators are obtained of the effects of each section in terms of spatial concentration on the different countries affected, efficiency (general improvement in accessibility) and territorial cohesion (reduction in accessibility disparities between regions). The validity of this approach is verified by applying it to TEN-T priority project 25. This methodology does not seek to replace existing project appraisal methodologies (particularly the cost-benefit analysis); rather it provides complementary data for decision-making. Sections which are scarcely profitable from the cost-benefit analysis perspective but which have high European value added should receive more European funding than more profitable sections of markedly national interest.     

Trends in regional jobs-housing proximity based on the minimum commute: The case of Belgium

This paper investigates recent trends in the efficiency of the Belgian territorial structure in terms of commuting, at both the urban and regional scales. The minimum commute distance (MCD) and excess rate (ER) are used to compare observed home-to-work trip lengths with an “optimal” alternative commuter pattern in which the sum of the distance traveled by the working population is minimized. The MCD is a proximity indicator that measures the spatial match between the labor market and the housing stock, which can also be regarded as an interesting indicator of potential border effects on travel behavior, especially in the inter-regional context of Belgium. An MCD calculation requires an origin–destination (OD) matrix and a distance matrix. In our Belgian case study, we employ a recent OD matrix (2010) originating from Social Security (ONSS) data. We compare this matrix with data from the 2001 and 1991 census surveys. In addition to identifying trends in jobs-housing proximity, the article assesses methodological implications regarding geographical scale arising from the use of the two data sources mentioned. Based on the available data, it was found that average actual commuting distance increased over both periods studied, while in general, growth rates of MCD are considerably lower than growth rates of the actual commuting distance. This indicates that the spatial proximity between the labor market and the housing stock in Belgium has declined over all periods studied, although this loss of spatial proximity only explains a small part of the increase of the actual commuting distance. Furthermore, we found that the comparison of excess commuting metrics between regions and time periods sets high standards on data requirements, in which uniformity in data collection and spatial level of aggregation is of great importance. Finally, as the main contribution of this study, the results demonstrate, through a statistical approach, that municipalities that are experiencing a higher-than-average increase in MCD and ER in one of the considered time frames are more likely to continue to exhibit a higher-than-average increase in the subsequent period. Therefore, the observed trends appear to be consistent over time.     

Accessibility by proximity: Addressing the lack of interactive accessibility instruments for active mobility

The rise of concepts such as the 15-minute-city represents the growing importance of accessibility by active mobility. In order to promote accessibility, accessibility instruments are developed that have substantial potential to assist practitioners in decision making processes. Therefore, this research starts with an up-to-date overview on the suitability of accessibility instruments when planning for active mobility. It was found that accessibility instruments were significantly further developed in the last few years and there is a rising number of tools that contain novel features. However, it was identified that there is a clear lack of tools specifically designed for modeling active mobility that are open source, include interactive scenario building, and can easily be transferred to new study areas.Therefore, an interactive accessibility instrument named GOAT (Geo Open Accessibility Tool) was developed, which is open source, transferable, and has an easy-to-use web interface. This instrument has been developed following an iterative software development process in close cooperation with practitioners from three municipalities in the region of Munich, Germany. The practitioners tested the tool independently in numerous workshops in order to provide feedback, which was integrated into the development. Furthermore, the tool was tested and transferred to more than 20 German municipalities, the City of Bogotá (Colombia) and Matosinhos (Portugal). First results show that the collaborative and open development process produced a user-centric solution, which bears the high potential to make planning for active mobility more effective and efficient.     

Reducing the uncertainty induced by spatial aggregation in accessibility and spatial interaction applications

Analyses of spatial interaction are to some degree plagued by uncertainty regarding the impact of spatially dispersed interaction masses within zones on travel times. In this paper, interaction-weighted travel times are computed from a matrix between regularly distributed points at fine resolution, and used together with secondary data to improve estimates of interaction weighted travel time based on commonly applied methods. The paper proposes a method for computing intra-zonal, interaction weighted travel times that is considerably less sensitive to spatial aggregation than existing approaches, and demonstrates that population-weighted centroids are to be preferred over geographically-weighted centroids.     

Road accessibility and cohesion in lagging regions: Empirical evidence from Portugal based on spatial econometric models

A number of transportation infrastructure projects were conducted in Europe during the 1990s with the explicit objective of promoting regional cohesion goals through the improvement of the accessibility of peripheral regions. Given its peripheral situation in the Union, Portugal was a key target for some of these projects. A decade later, it is pertinent to ask whether the new infrastructure achieved its objective of promoting lagging regions. The objective of this paper is to analyze one of the lagging regions in Portugal, to try to establish the link between changes in accessibility levels brought by improvements in the transportation network, and two indicators commonly used in accessibility research (population and purchasing power), while controlling other variables of possible relevance, such as the levels of educational achievement of the population in the region. The analysis is based on the use of spatially autoregressive models which allow the representation of accessibility as spatially lagged variables of first and second order. The results place the contribution of accessibility changes in context, and point at the relevance of education as an alternative policy.     

Analysis of job accessibility promoted by ride hailing services: A proposed method

The concept of accessibility as an element of the interaction between land use and transportation is widely applied in studies of urban mobility. The idea that the accessibility of a place can be measured by the variety and quantity of opportunities available at the destination has led to the creation and adaptation of various indicators. The new mode of transport known as ride hailing (RH) has grown in recent years throughout the world, making it necessary to evaluate its impact on modern society, mainly its interaction with other modes. Therefore, this article presents a method to calculate the accessibility of formal jobs generated by public transportation (PT) and RH, to compare the results. For this purpose, we made adaptations to two indicators commonly used in the literature: the Gini index combined with the Lorenz curve; and the location quotient (LQ). The integrated structure is demonstrated in the context of a case study conducted in four districts of the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. By applying the proposed method, we found that in regions with high commercial concentration and number of jobs, with the fares charged in the city, the accessibility to formal jobs generated by RH is greater than that associated with PT when more than two passengers travel together. This information on the competition or complementarity of the two modes can be useful to make decisions for regulation of the transport sector in general, and ride hailing in particular.