Stock price reaction and value relevance of recognition versus disclosure: the case of stock-based compensation

This study examines the equity price reaction to the pronouncements related to accounting for stock-based compensation and assesses the value relevance of recognition versus disclosure in financial reporting. We document that firms exhibit significant abnormal returns around the issuance of the Exposure Drafts proposing to require recognition of stock-based compensation costs, and also around the event reversing that decision to require disclosure only (while encouraging recognition). We also document that the abnormal returns are most pronounced for high-tech, high-growth, and start-up firms. Our results are consistent with the contracting theory, and show that disclosure is not a substitute for recognition.     

Why is there inconsistency in accounting for liabilities in IFRS? An analysis of recognition,measurement, estimation and conservatism

We report that International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) are inconsistent with respect to the recognition and measurement of liabilities, both in the conceptual framework for financial reporting and in accounting standards themselves. We demonstrate that this arises in part because the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) does not make a conceptual distinction between the process of measurement, which requires a currently observable measurement attribute, and the process of estimation, which is inherently subjective. The IASB employs only the logic and language of measurement, while actually requiring entities to report both measurements and estimates in financial statements. Our contribution is to identify and interpret this conceptual conflict, to demonstrate that this has particular relevance to accounting for liabilities, and to draw implications for accounting research and policy with respect to recognition, measurement and conservatism.     

关于会计计量的几个理论问题

随着当代财务会计试图把越来越多的所谓“资产负债表外业务”纳入表内核算和试图在会计报表中反映资产、负债价值的变化,会计准则中已经越来越多引入了公允价值等除历史成本以外的其它会计计量基础,从而对现行的历史成本会计模式产生了很大挑战。不仅如此,由于过去的财务会计概念框架没有考虑这一新的会计计量发展趋势,也使得会计准则与概念框架之间、会计准则与会计准则之间因为会计计量问题而产生了诸多的不一致,十分不利于会计信息质量的提高和国际会计的趋同。为此,本文以现行国际财务报告准则中存在的会计计量问题为出发点,系统研究了当前会计计量问题的实质、理论基础、未来发展趋向及其国际努力,并进而提出了我国的因应对策。     

Accounting for financial instruments with characteristics of debt and equity: finding a way forward

Accounting for compound financial instruments, that is those with characteristics of both debt and equity, has challenged accounting standard setters for decades. The principles developed to distinguish liabilities and equity and the application of these principles in IAS 32 have been widely criticised. In 2016–2017, the IASB was engaged in a project to improve IAS 32. Our study presents research that is relevant to the issues faced by standard setters, related to improving the definitions and enhancing presentation and disclosure of liabilities and equity. We discuss studies investigating the effects of the accounting classification requirements on firms’ financing choices and on users’ decision‐making, to examine the question, ‘Does the distinction matter?’ We then explore various approaches that may be pursued by the standard setters to improve accounting in this area and identify areas for future research.     

Accounting for Intangibles: A Theoretical Perspective

This paper uses a transactions theory approach to analyse some of the measurement and disclosure issues involved in accounting for goodwill and other intangibles. The recent professional and academic literature is reviewed and the traditional economic theory approach to interpreting accounting issues in these areas is criticised. A form of transactions theory called ‘Statistical Transactions Theory’ is then used to investigate several conceptual problem areas, notably: the definition of goodwill and fair values; the distinction between goodwill and other intangibles; and capitalisation, amortisation and valuation issues. The authors conclude that the most fruitful course of action in dealing with these issues would be a substantial research effort designed to investigate the distributional properties of accounting numbers relating to the subject of intangibles measurement, including goodwill as defined in this paper. They call for more analytic and empirical work in this field.     

The accounting and market consequences of accelerated share repurchases

We evaluate the representational faithfulness of the accounting treatment of a recent and well-established type of structured transaction—accelerated share repurchases (ASRs). ASRs are popular because accretive earnings per share benefits are recognized immediately, while any gains or losses on the forward contract used to execute an ASR bypass income, and are reported directly in equity. We document lower value relevance for the liabilities of ASR companies compared with a size- and industry-matched sample. ERC tests also indicate a market discount for the earnings of ASR companies compared with the control sample. Finally, we document significant abnormal returns to a trading strategy based on unrealized gains or losses on ASR transactions. Our results indicate that the current accounting for ASRs does not result in representative reporting of these transactions. As a result, financial statement users might benefit from recognition of ASR elements in financial statements.     

A Note on the Proprietary and Entity Perspectives in Financial Statements: The Implications for two Current Controversial Issues

Financial statements can portray the financial position and performance of an entity from different perspectives. Two dominant perspectives are the proprietary and entity perspectives. These perspectives also feature in recent discussions by the IASB and the FASB in relation to their conceptual framework project. The adopted perspective will yield different presentations for a number of issues. This paper illustrates the implications for two controversial issues currently under discussion by the IASB and the FASB: accounting for changes in a reporting entity’s own credit risk when liabilities are measured at fair value, and the classification of certain obligations as either equity or liabilities. The paper explains why the adoption and consistent application of one perspective are important for standard setting and financial reporting to ensure the consistent presentation of an entity’s performance and financial position that can be correctly interpreted by users of financial statements against the background of the chosen perspective.     

资产弃置义务会计:理论诠释与准则展望

结合FASB对环境会计相关规范的发展历程,重点对美国在资产弃置义务会计准则制定、环境负债的确认、计量及弃置成本资本化的相关问题进行研究,进而考察了FASB和IASB在资产弃置义务会计规范上的差异根源,以期把握环境财务会计发展的内在规律。在上述基础上,分析我国资产弃置义务会计所面临的经济法律环境与市场需求,提出了我国资产弃置义务会计规范的改进建议。     

NON-PROFIT PERFORMANCE INDICATORS IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR

This paper examines the scope for validly using non-profit performance indicators in the public sector and identifies several decision-relevant roles for such indicators in the process of policy optimisation. It argues that many of the desirable qualitative characteristics of financial accounting data identified in the FASB's conceptual framework project are both relevant, and in need of strengthening, when the profit concept is extended to a more general performance concept which also includes benefits to consumers of the output of the public sector. The need for such strengthening is examined in both nationalised industries and the non-trading public sector.     

Reporting matters: the real effects of financial reporting on investing and financing decisions

In this paper, I provide an overview of the research on the real effects of financial reporting on investing and financing decisions made by firms. Accounting can improve investment efficiency and affect nearly every aspect of the financing decision by reducing information asymmetry and improving monitoring. However, limitations in the financial reporting system, specifically distinguishing liabilities from equity and determining control for consolidations, result in opportunities to structure transactions to achieve certain financial reporting outcomes. A recent new stream of research documents a link between accounting and macroeconomic indicators, providing evidence that accounting predicts revisions in these indicators. An interesting avenue for future research could be to investigate the link between accounting, investing and financing, and macroeconomic performance.     

高管人员股权激励与投资决策关系的实证研究

本文运用我国上市公司2002-2005年的面板数据,对我国上市公司高管人员股权激励与投资决策之间交互作用及内生关系进行了实证检验,得出了以下主要结论:实行股票增值权公司的投资量较其他激励模式公司的投资量更大;我国上市公司高管人员股权激励对投资有显著的正影响;我国上市公司投资对高管人员股权激励有显著的正影响;我国上市公司高管人员股权激励与投资满足内生决定关系。     

Taking Stock: Equity-Based Compensation and the Evolution of Managerial Ownership

We investigate the impact of stock-based compensation on managerial ownership. We find that equity compensation succeeds in increasing incentives of lower-ownership managers, but higher-ownership managers negate much of its impact by selling previously owned shares. When executives exercise options to acquire stock, nearly all of the shares are sold. Our results illuminate dynamic aspects of managerial ownership arising from divergent goals of boards of directors, who use equity compensation for incentives, and managers, who respond by selling shares for diversification. The findings cast doubt on the frequent and important theoretical assumption that managers cannot hedge the risks of these awards.     

非高管股权激励与企业创新:公平理论视角

股权激励管理办法允许上市公司通过股权激励计划对部分非高管员工进行股权激励,但设定激励对象等方面的有关规定对企业的影响却鲜有研究关注。本文从公平理论视角分析我国非高管员工股权激励对上市公司创新的影响,并依据中国上市公司股权激励计划与专利数据实证检验了非高管员工股权激励有效性假说与不公平假说。研究发现,总体上我国股权激励计划能够显著促进企业创新,但非激励员工因薪酬不公平而产生的消极行为在一定程度上削弱了股权激励计划的激励效果。具体而言,在国有控股上市公司以及激励与非激励员工收入差距小的上市公司中,非高管股权激励弱化企业创新的影响明显小于其他公司;而在非高管员工覆盖比例较高的公司中,非高管股权激励计划弱化企业创新的影响不存在。因此适当提高员工股权激励覆盖的范围可以减少激励员工与非激励员工之间因激励错配导致的薪酬不公平问题,有助于提升我国上市公司股权激励计划的创新激励效果。     

Valuation consequences of regulatory changes in revenue recognition: Evidence from advertising barter sales

This study compares the valuation of advertising barter sales recognized under APB Opinion No. 29, relative to transactions recorded under EITF Issue No. 99-17. EITF 99-17 was the FASB's response to the perception that Internet-related firms were overstating revenue. The results indicate an inverse relation between price-to-sales ratios and the amount of advertising barter recorded under APB 29 by e-tailing firms. In contrast, we find no evidence of a discount for similar transactions recognized under EITF 99-17. This change in value relevance is consistent with increased credibility of recorded revenue. These results have implications for revenue recognition practices and accounting regulation.     

Expensing stock-based payments: A material concern?

Using SFAS 123 disclosures, Botosan and Plumlee [Botosan, C., & Plumlee, M. (2001). Stock option expense: The sword of Damocles Revealed. Accounting Horizons, 15, 311-327] find that if stock-based compensation were to be expensed rather than not recognised on the face of financial statements, the impact on key measures used to assess the performance of the fastest growing US firms would be material. Street and Cereola [Street, D. L., & Cereola, S. (2004). Stock option compensation: impact of expense recognition on performance indicators of non-domestic companies listed in the U.S. Journal of International Accounting, Auditing and Taxation, 13, 21-37] subsequently also use SFAS 123 disclosures to determine that the average impact of expensing stock-based compensation on diluted EPS for non-US domiciled firms listed on US exchanges will be material and approximately 40%. In this paper, we examine whether these findings apply across international borders to firms that are required from 2005 to adopt IFRS 2 Share-Based Payment to expense stock-based payments, and across a broad range of industries and firms’ growth phases. Based on Australian Stock Exchange-listed firms’ 2002 stock-based compensation disclosures of the value of options granted to directors and the top 5 executives, the expensing of options will have a significant negative effect on approximately 20% of our sample firms’ financial performance ratios. It appears that the materiality of the impact is neither industry specific nor restricted to high growth firms. As the IFRS 2 expensing requirement extends to stock-based compensation issued to all employees, our findings are conservative estimates of the impact. The findings suggest that a stock-based compensation accounting policy change will affect recognised financial numbers and could have consequential ramifications for contractual specifications and valuations of firms across a range of industries and growth phases. Our sample of Australian firms provides an interesting context for the study, since these firms have neither traditionally expensed nor necessarily disclosed stock-based payments but from 2005, all stock-exchange listed Australian firms will be at the forefront of IFRS 2 adoption.     

政府会计目标及其相关问题的理论探讨

中国的政府会计改革应当在一个以政府会计目标为逻辑起点的政府会计概念框架的指导下进行。本文提出政府会计的目标在于实现政府履行职责的高经济透明度,并探讨了政府会计目标及其与对外报告目标的联系与区别、概念化的政府会计要素和政府会计等式,以及政府会计与政府行为评价的关系等相关问题。     

A MARXIST CRITIQUE OF THE FASB'S CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

In developing its conceptual framework the FASB challenged supporters of traditional accounting to provide objective and operational definitions of the elements of financial statements that do not depend on definitions of assets and liabilities as future economic benefits. The paper answers this challenge by deriving a general theory of accounting from Marx's analysis of the circuit of industrial capital. It concludes that whereas the FASB's framework, based on the marginalist idea of economic value, is subjective and vague, the Marxist theory of financial accounting derived here provides critical accounting with a scientific foundation.     

Equity Accounting: Empirical Evidence and Lessons from the Past

This paper analyses the recently issued accounting standard prAASB 1016 and its predecessor ED 71 in the light of the historical development of equity accounting in Australia and overseas. Empirical research shows that equity accounting was not universally adopted before being banned and that, given a voluntary choice of accounting method, firms are more likely to adopt equity accounting when they hold material investments in associated companies, when the investments in associates are unlisted and when there is a greater level of interdependency between the investor and investee, as evidenced by the existence of cross-guarantees or the level of non-capital transactions which take place. There is no empirical evidence supporting the degree of influence as an important consideration in the adoption decision.     

Alternative explanations for the association between market values and stock-based compensation expenditure

The relation between stock-based compensation and market values has been tested previously in the literature, but the empirical findings are inconsistent: both negative and positive relations have been documented. The objective of this study is to provide an explanation for why both negative and positive relations between stock-based compensation expenditure and market values can be consistent with rational markets.We argue that stock-based compensation can be used either as a reward for past performance or as an incentive for future performance. We predict that there is a negative relation to market values when stock-based compensation is granted primarily as a reward to chief executives for past performance, while there is a positive relation when stock-based compensation is used to provide incentives for enhanced future performance. This prediction is tested on a sample of 259 firm-year observations for the period 1999–2004 using an instrumental variables approach, where the sample is classified into the ‘reward’ and ‘incentive’ groups on the basis of prior period performance and option characteristics. Our findings are that there is a positive association between stock-based compensation expenditure and market values for the ‘incentive’ group, but we find overall an insignificant relation for the ‘reward’ group. A number of sensitivity tests confirm the main findings.     

宏观经济政策与微观企业行为——拓展会计与财务研究新领域

本文首先回顾国际主流会计学术研究近年来遇到的挑战与质疑,然后提出以宏观经济政策与微观企业行为互动为基础的会计与财务研究框架,并以货币政策变动对企业融资、会计选择、经营业绩的影响为例说明这个框架对会计与财务研究可能产生的影响。本文认为结合宏观经济政策与微观企业行为互动作用的研究可能拓展会计与财务研究的新领域。