自然资源生态产品价值实现机制：一个机制复合体的分析框架

研究目的：探索自然资源生态产品价值实现机制复合体的分析框架。研究方法：案例分析法、比较分析法和归纳总结法。研究结果：（1）自然资源生态产品价值实现机制以交易主体、支付标准测度和价值实现方式选择为核心要件,并面临生物物理界限、制度界限、伦理界限和权利界限的权衡;（2）科层化实现、市场化实现和NGO实现三个基本机制各有其适用空间和局限性,且逐渐显现机制嵌构趋向,但组织网络仍呈碎片化样态;（3）机制复合体理论以制度性嵌入、规范性嵌入和关系性嵌入为关键性功能要素,将其引入自然资源生态产品价值实现机制的分析形成的机制复合体,基本框架表征为价值实现主体的多元化、支付责任分担的公平性和价值实现方式的网络化。研究结论：以政府主导型公—私—社合作伙伴实现机制为核心、多种价值实现机制并存的机制复合体,是中国自然资源生态产品价值实现机制演进的方向。     

Securing land and property rights in sub-Saharan Africa: The role of local institutions

Central governments have neither the capacity nor the local knowledge to implement a just, large-scale national land registration system. Support to local institutions to undertake intermediate forms of land registration has been shown to be far more effective in many places—although these need careful checks on abuses by powerful local (and external) interests, measures to limit disputes (too many of which can overwhelm any institution) and measures to ensure that the needs of those with the least power – typically women, migrants, tenants and pastoralists – are given due weight. These locally grounded systems can also provide the foundation for more formal registration systems, as needs and government capacities develop. Even if there are the funds and the institutional capacity to provide formal land title registration to everyone in ways that are fair and that recognize local diversity and complexity, and could manage disputes, this may often not be needed. For the vast majority of people, cheaper, simpler, locally grounded systems of rights registration can better meet their needs for secure tenure.     

Changes in coastal city ecosystem service values based on land use—A case study of Yingkou,China

The valuation of ecosystem services is intended to facilitate the rational and sustainable utilization of natural resources. However, calculating the values of natural resources is complex, and research is underway in this regard. The change of land use types can reflect the changes in the area of each ecosystem; therefore, in this study, land use changes in Yingkou (located in the south of Liaoning Province and an important port city) over a 10-year period (2004–2014) are assessed using a geographic information systems platform and the 2004, 2009 and 2014 Thematic Mapper remotely sensed images of the area. The Costanza calculation method and classification system are used to estimate changes in the total values of ecosystem services in the Yingkou area from 2004 to 2014 and to investigate the causes of these changes. The “change tendency” of particular ecological communities is calculated using the Variable coefficient, the Gini coefficient, and the Theil index. The results reveal the following: (i) The total value of ecosystem services in the Yingkou area decreased drastically (i.e., from $2567.60 million to $2127.26 million, representing a 17.2% decline) between 2004 and 2014. (ii) Aquatic ecosystem services are valued greater than terrestrial services. In Yingkou, a decline in the value of aquatic ecosystem services accounts for 88.6% of the total decrease in ecosystem service value. (iii) Land reclamation in the Yingkou urban area emerges as the primary factor influencing ecosystem service values for the various ecological communities in the region. The ecosystem service value of each ecological community is different, and the differences between the contributions made by the various communities to the total ecosystem services value are increasing over time. (iv) The decline in ecosystem service values in Yingkou is linked to urban development. Following widespread land reclamation, an increase in land area intended for urban construction is associated with a decrease in water area.     

桂西北喀斯特区域土地开发整理模式与持续利用对策研究--以环江毛南族自治县为例

桂西北喀斯特山区自然灾害频繁,水土流失严重,生态环境脆弱,人地矛盾突出,人均耕地不足0．02hm^2,有限的土地承裁着过量的人口。生态环境压力很大,但尚有一定数量的土地后备资源;土地资源总量较大,类型多样,具有多宜性,开发条件优越,但土壤质量不高。空间分布地域分异明显;以环江县为例,分析了区域土地资源个性特征,指出了现阶段喀斯特区域土地资源开发整理主要可行的小流域治理模式、农牧复合模式、生态家庭农场模式、立体生态农业模式、异地安置模式;提出了依托规划强化管理、建立产业化机制、生态环境影响评价制度和建立生态重建协调机制等土地资源可持续利用的对策。     

Whose land? The political economy of land titling in transitional economies

During processes of economic reform and transition, decision-makers are facing questions with potential far-reaching consequences, such as what institutions should be established, how to determine the relationship between state and market, and in what time frame and order. Against this background, this special issue has brought together four articles that analyze the type of institutional arrangements that emerge over time in relation to one of the basic means of production: land. The various contributions pay particular attention to an often-contested institutional development, the registration of land holdings. By proceeding with land titling under conditions of low socio-economic development, the state risks creating what is here termed as an “empty institution” rather than a “credible institution.” In other words, the new institution remains nothing more than a paper agreement or a hollow shell with little or even a negative effect on the actions of social actors. It is what might be called the “collective trust” in the system. As land becomes increasingly marketized and commodified, the state should ensure that the emerging land market does not result in a rapid concentration of land in the hands of a mighty few. This implies the control of market forces through the restriction or prohibition of land sales or land rental. In this context, effecting institutional change through land titling should be done with the utmost care.     

Resource regimes and cooperation

The choice of resource regimes is a choice over the cost of transacting and the ability and willingness to cooperate. This paper argues that people may be willing to forgo individual gains for the sake of the common good. This depends, however, on the institutional context. Hence, it is argued that an important role of resource regimes is their capacity to define whether the issue is one of individual gain or cooperation. The paper builds its arguments on material from experiments in psychology and economics. They show that cooperative action dominates under certain institutional structures while individual gain is fostered in others. Moreover, studies of behavior in real-life institutional settings—e.g., of markets, common property regimes and public provisioning—support these findings. The lessons learned are finally used to introduce a discussion over the direction of institutional design being able to solve the growing problems of global environmental degradation.     

Ten years after UNCOD

Ten years ago the United Nations Conference on Desertification (UNCOD) formally recognized an intricate process of land degradation that had been plaguing mankind for thousands of years. The term desertification was given to this process. In earlier times man adapted to desertification by moving to better places. This is rarely possible today and communities are more often forced to suffer the consequences — in the worst cases, starvation and uncontrolled migration into camps and urban slums. UNEP is charged with following up the implementation of UNCOD's Plan of Action to Combat Desertification. This article looks at UNCOD and gives an overview of what UNEP has been doing — and plans to do — to combat desertification.     

Reconciling moral and legal collective entitlement: Implications for community-based land reform

This paper discusses the drawing and contesting of social boundaries in the enactment of collective land rights, and the implications for land reform policies based around the notion of ‘community’ entitlement. Drawing on recent research in the crofting areas of Scotland, the paper explores the tensions arising when legal collective rights—or proposed changes to them—do not coincide with perceived moral claims to land. Examining the enactment of existing collective rights demonstrates how contested moral assumptions underpinning crofting identities, discourses and land use practices qualify and disqualify individuals as members of an imagined ‘crofting community’, and shape de facto access to and control over land-based resources. Some of the key policy implications of these findings are discussed with particular reference to Scottish land reform.     

林产加工业要素投入与影子价格及其影响分析——以江西林产加工业为例

以江西林产加工业为例,利用经验估计的生产函数和成本函数及其参数,对林产加工业的投入产出水平、生产要素和资源的影子价格及其影响进行了分析。得到结论:现有条件的林产加工业资金投入相对不足、劳力要素利用不充分,资源消耗过大;要素和资源市场机制的价格引导作用不灵敏。认为提高资源的利用效率和资源培育的林地产出效率是促进林产工业和资源培育产业良性循环发展的重要因素。     

Credibility of institutions: Forestry, social conflict and titling in China

In the reform of a forestry sector governed by centralist, socialist principles towards a sector suited to the challenges of the market economy, the Chinese government needs to establish institutions that can be perceived as credible by social actors. In other words, the creation of institutions that rally sufficient social and political support in order to be effective. Against this backdrop, this article consciously opts to refer to institutional “credibility” instead of the more fashionable concept of institutional “trust”. Whereas scholarly discussions about trust focus more on the relation of trust between social actors, credibility puts more emphasis on the institution itself, and the role of government in its successful creation or failure. Failure to effectively undertake institutional reform might put the social acceptability or credibility of institutions at risk, and can lead to the emergence of “empty institutions” with little, or even, a negative effect on social and political actors. Applying this concept to China's forestry sector, this article identifies three critical areas that call for careful rethinking how to “get institutions right”: the titling of forest holdings; the restructuring of the forest administration; and the design of forest laws and policies with particular reference to lease and ownership.     

Horseflies,wolves and wells: biophysical and socio-economic factors influencing livestock distribution in Kazakhstan’s rangelands

There have been studies on how pastoralists assess and choose the resources required for their livestock, but little research analysing whether livestock are matched to the available resources in a seasonal migratory system by an entire pastoral community over a year. This paper reports a case study of pastoralists in Kazakhstan which shows how the inter-relation of biophysical, institutional and economic factors results in the imperfect matching of livestock numbers to the distribution of forage resources. The research is based on a three-year study using anthropological interviews, formal survey data, and remotely sensed data covering all livestock (25,000 smallstock and approximately 2300 cattle, horses and camels) in a study area of 60,000 km² for an entire annual cycle; a combination of methodologies and geographical coverage that provides a comprehensive estimation of the factors that influence the pastoral exploitation of this human-managed, complex ecosystem. The research finds that the pastoralists are subject to a number of limitations in using biophysical niches which might otherwise provide the best feed and water resources for their animals at a particular season and site. Different ecozones offer seasonally-shifting advantages and disadvantages for the livestock, but livestock owners are also economically differentiated. The interplay between economic and biophysical factors exemplifies the multi-faceted character of pastoralists’ decision-making about site selection within a relatively open rangeland tenure system. Only those with the largest livestock holdings distribute their livestock to take advantage of the best seasonal resources. Despite the wide availability of biophysically suitable sites, most livestock owners’ choices are compromised and therefore frequently suboptimal, prompting the conclusion that natural resource matching is constrained.     

Desertification in Africa

This article looks at desertification — both on a global scale and as it relates to Africa. Desertification is defined here as the diminution or destruction of the biological potential of the land, and is caused basically by overuse of inherently fragile productive systems. After distinguishing between desertification and drought (two closely related ecological hazards), the author goes on to outline the terrible effects of desertification and the impact it has on the world population's ability to feed itself. Finally, recommendations to halt and reverse desertification are looked at together with attempts to mobilize the resources needed to face this global problem.     

秦巴山区蜀道申遗的自然资源管理制度研究

2016年1月,四川省蜀道被联合国教科文组织世界遗产中心列入《世界遗产预备清单》,获得了正式申报世界遗产的条件。这一进展表明秦巴山区蜀道作为自然与文化的混合遗产价值开始得到了国际社会初步认可。为了满足世界遗产的申请标准,改革现有蜀道自然资源管理制度成为一个迫在眉睫的研究问题,错过这一宝贵机会将对蜀道地区的经济和社会发展起到极大妨碍作用。对蜀道进一步申请进入世界遗产正式名单中的管理制度障碍、存在问题进行了总结,并提出相应的对策研究。提出从3个方面:立法保护、机构建设、管理制度全面回顾申请世界遗产的自然资源管理制度的经验和教训。在此基础上,提出进一步解放思想和整合资源,完善四川蜀道申遗自然资源管理制度,确保四川省蜀道能够成功进入世界遗产正式名单。     

土地利用国家干预的若干理论问题

研究目的:阐明土地利用国家干预的理论依据,为选择合理的干预方式、手段和力度提供理论支持,澄清关于土地宏观调控和微观规制的错误认识。研究方法:比较借鉴,逻辑演绎,实证分析。研究结果:土地利用国家干预的理论渊源包括经济学关于市场经济条件下“市场失灵”和“政府失灵”的理论,以及政治学、社会学关于个体失律、社会失范和价值目标的相关理论;土地利用国家干预具有坚实的合法性基础,也有其局限性;土地利用国家干预应包括宏观调控和微观规制两种方式,二者都是不可或缺的制度安排。研究结论:应当结合国家干预理论、土地特性和中国国情选择土地利用国家干预的方式和手段。     

关于我国自然资源监管体制改革问题的思考

自然资源监管体制改革是全面深化改革的重要组成部分,是履行自然资源部"两统一"职责的有力抓手。文章分析了自然资源监管对生态文明体制改革、国家治理体系和治理能力现代化以及"放管服"改革的重要意义;指出自然资源监管领域存在统计标准有差异、监管法律支撑不足、基层执法力量薄弱等问题;从中央和地方、政府和市场、制度惯性和制度变迁、成本和效能四个维度认识自然资源监管中存在的关系;最后在"四个治理"的基础上提出要注重监管的系统性、依法性、综合性和源头性,从而构建起优化协同高效的自然资源监管体系。     

基层国土所建设存在的问题与若干建议——以赴杭州市及淳安县、临安县国土所实地调研为例

基层国土所是国土资源系统对百姓的窗口,国土所的形象在某种程度上代表着国土资源系统的形象,直接影响市、省(区、市)、部在老百姓心目中的印象。杭州市国土所建设面临着三个主要问题:编制问题、资金问题、垂直管理不尽彻底问题。对基层国土所建设的三点建议:①加强机构建设,确保人员真正到位;②要改革国土所,进行必要的整合;③要培养国土所工作人员的政治觉悟、业务知识,提高管理水平。     

Diversity of incentives for private forest landowners: An assessment of programs in Indiana, USA

 Many government and private programs provide incentives for non-industrial private forest (NIPF) owners. Due to the complexity of this web of programs, the incentives of the programs are unclear. We focus on four specific programs that represent different rule structures—a federal cost-share program, a state tax incentive program, a nationwide private stewardship program, and a local private conservation organization. We perform institutional analysis of the formal and informal rules of the programs based on literature review, discussions with officers, and formal guidelines of the programs. We classify different types of rule structures, and explain them in relation to goals and organizational structures of the programs.     

Can we avoid overdevelopment of river floodplains by economic policies?: A case study of the Ouse catchment (Yorkshire) in the UK

River floodplains are significant environmental resources in that they provide multiple ecosystem services. However, river floodplains are/tend to be overdeveloped because indirect-use values linked with ecosystem services are overlooked by private landowners. In a case study of the Ouse catchment, it turns out that river floodplains tend to be overdeveloped in upstream areas because of a unidirectional spatial externality. We set a simple model that considers both direct- and indirect-use values to analyse the social optimisation. The essential point is that we must consider two types of environmental externalities related to the ecosystem services of river floodplains to make decisions on floodplain development. First, the development of river floodplains has opportunity costs in terms of lost ecosystem services. Second, the development of floodplains increases flood risks to people downstream (imposes a unidirectional spatial external costs). Theoretically, we can easily deal with the problem by zonal economic policies: zonal taxes or subsidies (price policies) and zonal marketable permits or transferable development rights (quantity policies). On the practical side, however, there are so many problems. Then, such approaches are too complex to use. First of all, we have to specify real complicated economic and physical systems which show non-linearity, irreversibility, site-specific relationships, and inter-dependency between systems and sites. Secondly such policies should be ‘zonal’, which might impose substantial transaction costs. In order to apply them to real situations, we have to determine the appropriate number of zones, their sizes and geographical shapes, and then set appropriate rates or amounts of permits in each zone. Furthermore, the determination of zones is difficult because of the trade-off between the internalisation of externalities and implementation costs of policies, which are also related to political frictions and market failure.     

Build a people-oriented urbanization: China’s new-type urbanization dream and Anhui model

Since 2014, the Chinese government has initiatednew-type urbanization under the guidance of ‘the National New-type Urbanization Plan (2014–2020)’, which embarks on a significant transformation of the model of urbanization in post-reform China. To understand the origin and outputs of this policy, this article demonstrates the context of China’s new-type urbanization. The paper proposes a conceptual framework of new-type urbanization, which mainly includes four aspects: humanism, people-oriented urbanization; inclusivism, benefits sharing for urban and rural; sustainability, development without sacrifice of resources and environment; and harmonism, coordination. This is followed by an examination of the case of Anhui province, as a pilot province of China’s new-type urbanization. Anhui has performed a lot of related work to promote citizenization of peasant workers and has made great progress on the reform of the household registration system. The study found that despite a special emphasis on people-oriented urbanization, the pressures and costs of citizenization of peasant workers are growing fast, accompanied by rising housing prices in cities. This insight suggests there are benefits and costs of promoting China’s new-type urbanization. Despite the advantages of institutional innovation, the unexpected side effects such as rapid rising housing prices actually undermine the success of plan implementation.     

A comparative analysis of rice–wheat systems in Indian Haryana and Pakistan Punjab

Intensive irrigated rice–wheat production systems have converted the north-west Indo-Gangetic Plains into South Asia's cereal basket. Their strategic importance is undermined by a slowdown in productivity growth linked to the degradation of soil and water resources. Findings from farm surveys are used to examine contrasts and similarities between rice and wheat farms, cultivation practices, productivity, and profitability in the rice–wheat belt of India's Haryana State and Pakistan's Punjab province. In Haryana average wheat and paddy yields are markedly higher, but the yield advantage is offset by higher total production costs, resulting in lower private returns. The diverging institutional environment including varying levels of intervention in produce and input markets contributed to the evolution of the Pakistani production model as relatively ‘medium input–medium output’ and the Indian production model as ‘high input–high output’. The study reiterates the need to reinvigorate productivity growth and to reduce production costs in these intensive cereal production systems while conserving natural resources such as water and limiting negative environmental impacts. The study however also raises questions about the future of current rice–wheat systems.