Estimation and Determinants of the Philippines' Household Carbon Footprint

Estimation of a household carbon footprint in developed countries is abundant in the literature but there are few studies from developing countries. This paper presents an estimation of household carbon emission from the consumption of various goods and services in the Philippines. We estimate household emissions by combining input–output analysis with household expenditure for 2000 and 2006. After controlling for household characteristics, the analyses reveal that income has a significant nonlinear relationship with emissions, depicting an inverted U‐shaped with a turning point beyond the current income distribution. Unless consumption patterns change, it is likely that there will be further increases in emissions as households become more affluent.     

中国消费环境对居民消费水平的影响

居民消费是消费环境的函数。文章所构建的消费环境包括了经济环境、社会环境和法律环境三个主要维度,基于1990-2008年的相关数据研究发现,经济环境中的收入和就业因素对于居民消费的即期影响效应统计显著,其中,就业对消费的影响远高于收入对消费的影响。社会环境和法律环境中的所有变量则并没有对居民的消费产生统计显著的影响。因此,中国在进入“十二五”期间之后,要稳健、全面推动中国的内需,亟需解决的问题是构建起更加健康有序的社会消费环境和法律环境,而不是仅着眼于对于居民消费有即期影响的收入和就业水平,虽然这是两个非常重要的因素。     

Human capital investment in children: An empirical study of household child education expenditure in China, 2007 and 2011

Household education expenditure is an important component of human capital investment in children. In China, the rising child education expenditure and the subsequent financial burden on families have attracted much research and policy attention in the recent years. Using 2007 and 2011 data from the Urban Household Education Surveys, our empirical study provides new evidence on the education expenditure level, ratio of expenditure to household income, and inequality in this expenditure. We also elucidate changes in China's household education expenditure and explore factors associated with such changes. From the analysis, we obtain the following findings. First, education expenditure incurred outside the school significantly contributes to increasing household education expenditure. Second, compulsory education programs are effective in curbing in-school education expenditure; however, it does not prevent the rapidly increasing education investment outside school. Third, education expenditure disproportionally increases with family income. In other words, a larger share of the income earned by lower income families is spent on children's education, compared to higher income families.     

Minimum Living Level and Consumer Price Index: What's in a name?

The Minimum Living Level (MLL) denotes the minimum financial requirements of members of a household to maintain an acceptable living standard, which is above the Poverty Line. Sufficient quantities of relevant expenditure items based on minimum health standards are allowed for when calculating the MLL, but rational expenditure on them is assumed. The MLL is measured in monetary value. The Consumer Price Index (CPI) is a measurement of changes in the prices over time of a basket of typical consumer goods and services and is measured by an index or percentage. The basket of expenditure items used in the CPI depends on household expenditure surveys. This article sets out to differentiate between the MLL, CPI and the Poverty Line, since the latter and the MLL are sometimes used in the same context in South Africa.     

The Invisible Hand of Rain in Spending: Effect of Rainfall‐Driven Agricultural Income on Per Capita Expenditure in Ghana

This paper uses a nationally representative household pseudo‐panel dataset for Ghana, a rain‐fed agriculture economy, to investigate whether there is a positive relationship between rainfall‐driven agricultural income and household per capita expenditure. By using the Two Stage Least Squares Instrumental Variable (2SLS‐IV) estimator, it is found that a fall in rainfall‐driven agricultural income leads to a decrease in per capita expenditure. The results show that the gender and the locality of the household head matter in the response of per capita expenditures to rainfall‐driven agricultural income. Female‐headed and rural households are more vulnerable to rainfall‐driven agricultural income changes. The expenditure disaggregation indicates that female‐headed households significantly reduce per capita non‐food expenditure in times of rainfall‐induced agricultural income decrease whilst the response of male‐headed households focuses more on reducing per capita food and remittance expenditures.     

Analyse de la consommation des biens culturels au Togo

This paper analyses the determinants of consumption decision and household expenditure on cultural goods in Togo, based on survey data from the 2015 QUIBB Basic Well‐being Indicators. The determinants of consumption decision are empirically estimated from a probit model while the determinants of consumption expenditure on cultural goods are estimated from a Tobit model and the CLAD (Censored Lead Absolute Deviation) method. The results show that the decision to consume cultural goods is positively affected by the higher level of education and the place of residence but negatively affected by the size of the household. Likewise, households' consumption expenditure is significantly influenced by income, education level, place of residence, household size, and religion. However, estimation by the CLAD method shows that the magnitude of the effect of these factors differs from one quantile to another. Furthermore, our results highlight a U‐shaped relationship between cultural spending and income. Taking these factors into account can help revive the cultural sector in Togo.     

Food away from home in Beijing: Effects of wealth,time and “free” meals

Based on a modified Becker household consumption and production model and newly surveyed data set collected by the authors, this study investigated household expenditure on food away from home (FAFH) and its determinants in Beijing, China. A Box–Cox double-hurdle regression is estimated. The key findings suggest that household expenditure on dining out might be significantly underestimated when using the data most commonly used in food consumption research in China. Excluding hosted meals that are not paid for by individual consumers comprises nearly one half of the underestimation. Meanwhile, this exclusion could bias estimates of income effects on the demand for food away from home.     

Effects of food stamp program participation and other sociodemographic characteristics on food expenditure patterns of elderly minority households

An Engel-type regression model was used to examine the relationship between Food Stamp program participation, socioeconomic characteristics, and household food expenditures. Findings suggest that Food Stamp subsidies, money income levels, and housing subsidies have a strong relationship with household food expenditure patterns. Food Stamp subsidies were significantly more effective in enhancing food expenditures at the lower household income ranges. Food Stamp subsidies also interacted strongly with housing rental subsidies, feeding programs, and money income to improve the quantity and quality of food consumption. Findings suggest that multiple-program benefits are important policy instruments for providing an adequate economic safety net for the elderly poor.     

Cigarette and Alcohol Expenditures in Malaysia: Implications for Anti‐Smoking and Drinking Policies*

A number of studies have examined alcohol and cigarette consumption, but none have explored demand for both products simultaneously even though consumption decisions are likely often related. The present study uses microdata from the 2009/2010 Malaysian Household Expenditure Survey. A novel bivariate Tobit model that accounts for error heteroscedasticity is used to estimate Malaysian consumers' decisions to purchase cigarettes and alcohol and amount spent for each. The results indicate that household income and regional location, and the age, gender, education level and occupation type of the household head are associated with consumption decisions and expenditure levels, with some variation by ethnic group, suggesting the importance of these characteristics in policy deliberations to reduce consumption.     

典型相关分析在居民收入与支出间的应用

扩大内需和提高居民收入是政府宏观调控的目标,本文运用典型相关分析原理,构建了居民收入与支出间的关系及其影响因素,找出了影响居民收入与支出的主要因素,并将该模型应用于2009年农村居民收入与支出间关系的研究,证明劳动者报酬收入对食品和衣着支出有着显著影响。     

Demographic factors and the pattern of household expenditures in the United States

Summary and Conclusions This study takes as its starting point the hypothesis that demographic characteristics of households are as relevant determinants of the pattern of consumer expenditures in the United States as are measured prices and incomes. Demographic characteristics of households are brought to bear upon their expenditure patterns not via their impact on consumer tastes but rather via their effect on “true” prices and “permanent” incomes faced by households. The Bureau of Labor Statistics' 1972/73 Consumer Expenditure Survey data are used to estimate several expenditure functions. The econometric results unequivocally demonstrate the validity of the authors' hypothesis. Various demographic factors such as the age of the household head, his/her educational attainment, the employment status of the household head and spouse, the household's race and region of location are all found to be significant determinants of the pattern of expenditures in the United States. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 1979 Annual Meeting of the Atlantic Economic Society, October 10–12, 1979, Washington, D.C. The authors would like to thank Mr. Lee Grimes of the Computer Center at Tennessee Tech for many hours of patient help.     

An investigation into food-away-from-home consumption in South Africa

Food policy that ignores food-away-from-home (FAFH) in a developing country like South Africa will be misleading given changes in demand for food over time. This study contributes to our understanding of the factors that influence the demand for FAFH in South Africa. Using panel data from the Income and Expenditure Survey, this study analyses the effects of income and socio-demographic variables on FAFH expenditure using a double-hurdle model. The results show that small-sized households headed by younger white females/males and living in an urban settlement are most likely to purchase FAFH while male-headed households spend more than female-headed households. Furthermore, income of the household head is an important determinant of household FAFH expenditures. The income elasticity of expenditure on FAFH is inelastic and a normal good. The small size of the participation elasticities means that growth in the FAFH sector will be driven by households with existing expenditure.     

Do the self-employed underreport their income? Evidence from Japanese panel data

This paper examines to what extent self-employed households underreport their income to tax authorities in Japan. To this end, we employ the so-called expenditure-based approach, which essentially compares the current expenditure of self-employed and wage earner households while controlling for their income, net worth, and household characteristics. Using Japanese household-level panel data for the period 2009−2019, we find that the self-employed possibly underreport their income by 33.0–36.4%. Our findings are also robust to the different preferences (degree of risk-loving, time discount rates, etc.), planned retirement age, and degree of measurement error in expenditure between the self-employed and wage earners.     

Is Decoupling Possible? Association between Affluence and Household Carbon Emissions in the Philippines

This paper investigates whether or not affluence is associated with carbon emissions at the household level in the Philippines. While there is abundant literature on this issue, limited studies are available for developing countries. We estimate household carbon emissions by combining input–output analysis with household expenditure. The results suggest that household carbon emissions are increasing non‐monotonically with a non‐existent turning point as households accumulate more assets. This is further supported by quintile estimates showing huge disparity in emissions between poor and rich households. Although household carbon emissions in the Philippines are not alarming, evidence suggests that it is likely households will lead a carbon‐intensive lifestyle as they become more affluent.     

户籍门槛、发展型政府与人口城镇化政策——基于大中城市面板数据的经验研究

文章从制度变迁视角分析了户籍改革难以突破的原因,在发展主义理念的指引下,如果户籍改革对地方经济增长或财政收支产生负面影响,地方政府可能会拖延或阻碍改革进程。基于大中城市面板数据的实证研究显示,特大城市提高门槛对地方人均产出有正面影响,户籍改革动力最弱。其他城市虽然可以通过降低户籍门槛提高人均产出水平,但率先放开户籍制度可能引发流动人口大量涌入抵消政策效果,地方政府的户籍改革动力随着城市人口规模增长逐步下降。同时,户籍人口增长会带来财政支出的显著增加,为避免户籍化政策对财政支出产生压力,地方政府会通过户籍门槛对流动人口进行筛选,将对财政收入贡献较低或产生明显财政支出的群体排斥在户籍门槛之外。本文认为中国大中城市的户籍制度存在刚性,可以通过收回地方制定落户政策的权力强制推动户籍制度改革,或利用财政政策降低户籍化成本,激励地方政府推动改革。     

Food Demand Characteristics in Uganda: Estimation and Policy Relevance

Uganda was highly successful in reducing poverty over the past two decades but made little progress towards household food security. This underlines the need for designing food security interventions customised for household‐specific needs and behaviours. This study estimates Ugandan household demand behaviour with a focus on food consumption paying particular attention to household‐specific characteristics. The results show that preferences to increase calorie‐dense staple consumption, likely associated with food energy deficiency, extend far beyond the percentage of rural Ugandans officially deemed poor. Price elasticities indicate that poor rural households are largely well positioned to compensate staple price increases by substitution as long as they are not already concentrated on the cheapest foods. This flexibility applies less to urban households. The estimated demand elasticities generally vary widely between rural and urban households and depend on expenditure levels. Household‐specific characteristics have significant, sometimes pronounced, influences on demand, as do seasons and regions. The results reflect highly differentiated demand behaviour, which can be utilised to improve the design and evaluation of food security interventions.     

The Influence of Demographics and Household-Specific Price Indices on Consumption-Based Inequality and Welfare: A Comparison of Spain and the United States

Previous research has suggested that inequality is lower in Spain than in the United States when it is based on income. For the present article, both inequality and social welfare are examined, with household consumption expenditures used as a proxy for household welfare. For tractability, equivalence scales depended only on the number of people in the household. Household-specific price indices were used to express the 1990-1991 expenditure distributions in 1981 and 1991 winter prices. Our results reveal that inequality and welfare comparisons are drastically different for smaller and larger households. When all households are considered, the two-country comparison suggests that the income inequality ranking can only be maintained for expenditure distributions when economies of scale are small or nonexistent. However, welfare is always higher in the United States than in Spain. Because inflation during the 1980s in both countries was essentially distributionally neutral, all results appear to be robust to the choice of time period.     

移动支付对居民消费的影响——基于CHFS的实证分析

随着移动互联网的普及,移动支付逐渐成为消费者的支付习惯.从双通道心理账户理论、交易成本以及流动性约束三方面分析移动支付对消费的影响机制,采用两阶段最小二乘法进行估计,结果显示,移动支付对家庭总消费、食品支出、教育支出、文娱支出有显著的正向影响,其中对食品支出的影响最大,对文娱支出的影响最小.     

CREDIT DEMAND AND CREDIT RATIONING IN THE INFORMAL FINANCIAL SECTOR IN UGANDA1

This paper investigates the household and individual characteristics that influence the demand and supply of informal credit in Uganda, which credit is important for improving the welfare of the poor. Informal credit demand is positively and significantly influenced by age, sex, education level, dependency ratio, household expenditure, and regional location. On the supply side, informal lenders' credit rationing behaviour is negatively and significantly influenced by age, sex, asset values, and regional location. Government policies should focus on increasing both the productive capacity and wealth of households in order to enhance the poor's creditworthiness and make them less susceptible to credit rationing by lenders.     

A Model of a Padi Farming Household in Central Java∗

A model of a padi-producing household is developed permitting effects of changes in exogenous variables to be traced through simultaneous changes in household production and consumption behaviour. The model, applied to a village in Central Java, incorporates both a Cobb-Douglas function to represent production of padi for a representative household, and a linear expenditure system to describe the household's consumption behaviour. Assuming a perfect labour market, the model is used to estimate some elasticities of policy significance. An important finding is that padi output, market surplus, employment and rural wages are all positively related to padi price.