Celebrity endorsements: a literature review and research agenda

This paper presents a narrative review of celebrity endorsement research. The review identifies six areas of research on celebrity endorsements (celebrity prevalence, campaign management, financial effects, celebrity persuasion, non-evaluative meaning transfer, and brand-to-celebrity transfer). A review of the research in each area identifies key findings, conflicting results, and research gaps. In addition, this paper reviews the celebrity endorsement literature with a focus on the psychological processes underlying celebrity endorsement effects that has been put forward in the literature. Based on the review an agenda for future research is offered.     

Priming skepticism: Unintended consequences of one-sided persuasion knowledge access

Scholars have historically assumed that consumers' persuasion knowledge is invariably linked to skepticism about advertising and marketing. As a result, studies have often used skepticism-focused stimuli to prompt persuasion knowledge access. However, as originally conceptualized, persuasion knowledge also includes an understanding of persuasion tactics that are trusted and believed, which suggests that accessing persuasion knowledge does not necessarily make consumers more skeptical. In this paper, we propose that, for at least some persuasion knowledge research questions, skepticism-focused interventions may be too “one-sided” because they bias participants to consider only the skeptical side of persuasion knowledge. The purpose of the present research is to test whether the “one-sided” persuasion knowledge interventions that are used in persuasion knowledge research encourage skepticism more than balanced interventions that focus consumers on the negative and positive motives that may underlie persuasive communication. Across three experiments with three distinct subject pools and over 2,500 participants, we demonstrate that one-sided versus balanced manipulations of persuasion knowledge can have differential effects on consumer skepticism. This is an important finding because skepticism-focused operationalizations are frequently employed in persuasion knowledge research.     

From Elicitation to Persuasion: Assessing the Structure and Effectiveness of Differential Emotions in Anti-Drunk-Driving Campaigns

In this paper, we test whether the DES III structure of emotions as described by Izard (1977) can be found in self-report data collected in the context of a campaign to deter drunk driving. Indeed, when exposed to a shocking advertisement about the consequences of drunk-driving, young adults express a range of emotions from surprise to contempt. The purpose of this research is to study and understand the structure of these emotions and their impact on persuasion.

126 social drinkers aged between 20 and 28 years old, who were also students belonging to different French universities, were exposed to a dramatic printed advertisement about drinking and driving. After viewing the ad, subjects answered a survey including different measures of emotions using Izard's DES III scale, and measures of self-efficacy and persuasion.

Factor analysis results reveal a four dimensional structure of the original DES III. Both “primary emotions” and “repulsion” have direct effects on persuasion. However, the effect of “repulsion” on persuasion is negative. This paper is, to our knowledge, the first to show that surprise comes ahead of all other emotions elicited by a shocking advertisement. It is the precursor for all other emotional responses. This research also tests an original model explaining how people respond to shocking advertisements along two distinct pathways: one leading to persuasion and another one leading to resistance to persuasion.     

Reduce Content or Raise Price? The Impact of Persuasion Knowledge and Unit Price Increase Tactics on Retailer and Product Brand Attitudes

This research investigates consumer reactions to the practice of increasing unit prices of products by either reducing product content or increasing total prices. Using pricing tactic persuasion knowledge (PTPK) as a lens for understanding, I predict that total price increases garner less favorable attitudes toward retailers for relatively low PTPK consumers, while content reductions garner less favorable attitudes toward product brands for relatively high PTPK consumers. The results of an experiment with a nationally representative sample of U.S. consumers support these asymmetric predictions about PTPK consumer segments as well as expectations about the underlying psychological processes.     

The vulnerability of defensiveness: The impact of persuasion attempts and processing motivations on trust

People are generally defense motivated during interactions with salesclerks. In this research, we demonstrate that defense motivation can make consumers vulnerable to a less stereotypical persuasion attempt as compared to a more stereotypical one. The consequence is that consumers are willing to pay a higher price and exhibit greater trust in a salesclerk who uses a less stereotypical persuasion attempt. Thus, the stereotypicality of a persuasion attempt is identified as one key factor that impacts perceptions of trustworthiness. In addition, we show that accuracy motivations can attenuate the positive effect of a less stereotypical persuasion attempt. In other words, accuracy motivations can protect consumers from being susceptible to less stereotypical persuasion attempts.     

When transparency pays off: Enticing sceptical consumers with two-sided advertising

It has been generally assumed that higher levels of scepticism towards advertising invariably lead to higher resistance to advertising appeals. The main purpose of the present research was to examine whether highly sceptical consumers' resistance can be overcome by appeals associated with higher credibility. We tested our hypotheses using message sidedness as an advertising variable that has been associated with higher (two-sided) versus lower (one-sided) credibility. In three experimental studies, we examined more versus less sceptical consumers' responses to two- versus one-sided appeals. We found that two-sided messages are more effective in increasing purchase intentions, through enhanced credibility, but only for consumers who are more sceptical of advertising. Less sceptical consumers trust both messages equally and their purchase intentions are not affected by the type of message. Importantly, we also showed that highly sceptical consumers trust two-sided appeals as much as their less sceptical counterparts. The study contributes to the literature on advertising and persuasion knowledge by showing that advertising scepticism does not elicit a single response tendency, as originally conceptualized. Rather, advertising scepticism is more consistent with the underpinnings of the Persuasion Knowledge Model, in that higher knowledge about persuasion tactics aids consumers to better cope with, and not invariably resist persuasion attempts. We conclude that transparency pays off because it may entice a more sceptical audience and, at the same time, it does not harm less sceptical consumers' trust and purchase intentions.     

Cause-related marketing persuasion research: an integrated framework and directions for further research

This paper presents an integrative review of the literature on cause-related marketing (CRM) persuasion research (i.e. studies of how CRM influences evaluations of the partner brand). The aim of the study was to review CRM persuasion research and to integrate the findings into a theoretical framework that could direct future research efforts in the area. Drawing on Bergkvist and Taylor's model of Leveraged Marketing Communications (LMC), a dual-path model of CRM persuasion effects was developed. According to the model, CRM affects brand evaluations along two paths: the indirect transfer path which is mediated by attribution of motives and the direct transfer path in which attitude towards the cause is transferred to the brand. The model incorporates results from extant research and provides guidance for future studies.     

Guilt appeals: Persuasion knowledge and charitable giving

This paper applies the persuasion knowledge model to explain consumers' responses to charity guilt appeals. With data obtained through a stimuli‐driven survey, the research examines the relationships between knowledge of persuasion tactics and charities, and the level of felt guilt experienced in response to an advertisement and subsequent donation intentions. The findings show that guilt arousal is positively related to donation intention, and that persuasion and agent knowledge impact the extent of guilt aroused. The research confirms that consumers are active rather than passive processors of marketing communications by revealing the role of persuasion and agent knowledge as methods of coping with and informing responses to guilt appeals. Specifically, the research finds that manipulative intent and the respondents' skepticism toward advertising tactics in general are negatively related to guilt arousal but that their affective evaluation and beliefs about a charity are positively related to feelings of guilt. However, it also shows that there is a positive direct relationship between perceived manipulative intent and the intention to donate. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

How source cues impact consumer evaluations of direct and indirect persuasion attempts

This research demonstrates how the directness of a persuasion attempt by a sales agent, in this case flattery, changes how source cues influence consumers’ evaluation of the shopping experience. When the persuasion attempt is direct, source cues do not influence consumer evaluations. However, when an indirect persuasion attempt is used, it is only effective when positive source cues are present. In particular, when the persuasion attempt is indirect, evaluations are more effective when the sales agent is attractive to or shares similar opinions with the consumer. Copyright © 2013 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sense and sensibility in personalized e‐commerce: How emotions rebalance the purchase intentions of persuaded customers

This research develops and tests a theoretical model of customer persuasion in personalized online shopping, building on information processing theory, and addressing cognitive and affective stages of the persuasion process. Data from 582 experienced online customers were used to validate the proposed model through structural equation modeling and multigroup analysis. Results show that quality of personalization, message quality, and benefits of the personalized recommendations are important in the persuasion process. Positive emotions increase the effect of persuasion on purchase intentions, contrary to negative emotions. The study extends online personalization theory, offers an in‐depth analysis of the persuasion process in online shopping, and provides valuable recommendations for personalized online marketing.     

Differential Effects of Value Consciousness and Coupon Proneness on Consumers’ Persuasion Knowledge of Pricing Tactics

Pricing tactics persuasion knowledge (PTPK) is a relatively new concept that seeks to extend the research on persuasion knowledge to the pricing domain. Pricing tactics persuasion knowledge refers to the persuasion knowledge of consumers about marketers’ pricing tactics. Employing an acquisition–transaction utility theoretic perspective, this study examines the differential effects of value consciousness and coupon proneness on the accuracy, confidence, and calibration of consumers’ pricing tactics persuasion knowledge. The study finds that coupon proneness is negatively related to accuracy, confidence, and calibration of PTPK, while value consciousness is positively related to accuracy, confidence, and calibration of PTPK. The implications of the study are outlined.     

Flag backlash: Why does the presence of the American flag reduce product evaluation?

The American flag is often incorporated into product branding. However, little research has investigated how the use of American flag imagery as a marketing tool for products influences consumer behavior. The present research examines (1) whether the presence of the American flag on a product affects consumers’ evaluation of products and (2) the social cognitive mechanisms underlying the effect of the flag on product‐related judgments. This research provides evidence that the presence of the American flag on a product induces negative product evaluation (Study 1). This negative effect is found to be moderated by participants’ trait level of psychological reactance (Study 2) and mediated by participants’ outrage (Study 3a) and perceived persuasion (Study 3b). When the American flag's link with the product is broken, its negative impact on product evaluation disappears (Study 4).     

Persuasion knowledge and consumer reactions to pricing tactics

The current research investigates consumer knowledge of the pricing tactics that marketers frequently employ and the effects of that knowledge on responses to various price offers. In the research, a series of studies were conducted to develop and validate a knowledge measure designed to assess pricing tactic persuasion knowledge (PTPK). Consistent with the persuasion knowledge model, individuals with higher levels of PTPK were shown to have more knowledge-related thoughts regarding pricing tactic information than those with low levels of PTPK. Additionally, pricing tactic persuasion knowledge was shown to be more predictive of consumer choices regarding quantity surcharge offers and purchase interest evaluations following exposure to tensile claim offers (e.g., “Save up to 50 percent Off”) than several competing constructs.     

The Effect of Consumer Persuasion Knowledge on Scarcity Appeal Persuasiveness

Past research identifies demand-related scarcity appeals and supply-related scarcity appeals as effective persuasive influences on consumer behavior. The present research uses a persuasion knowledge approach to examine the persuasiveness of demand- versus supply-related scarcity appeals in advertising messages. Study 1 shows that supply-related scarcity appeal ad messages are less likely to activate persuasion knowledge than demand-related scarcity appeal messages. Study 2 demonstrates that message specificity moderates this effect. In line with an elaboration likelihood model perspective, results show that stating the appeal in specific (versus vague) terms decreases the persuasiveness of supply-related scarcity appeal ad messages.     

A Metacognitive Model of the Effects of Susceptibility to Persuasion Self-Beliefs on Advertising Effects

This study postulates that people's beliefs about their own susceptibility to persuasion efforts can influence advertising effects. It thus represents the first explication of the process by which self-beliefs determine advertising effects, through their influence on the subjective experience of the ease of being persuaded. Integrating three research streams (metacognition, persuasion knowledge, and cognitive correction), the current study proposes a model of three influence patterns, which are contingent on whether people perceive the advertising message to be high in manipulative intent and whether people are motivated to be accurate in their judgments. If advertising messages are low in manipulative intent, such that the persuasion seems acceptable, susceptibility self-beliefs influence people's attitudes toward the advertised products or issues (i.e., expected effects). If advertising messages are high in manipulative intent, such that persuasion seems unacceptable, people exhibit suppression (no effects) if they have weak accuracy motives, but they exhibit overcorrection (opposite effects) if they are strongly motivated to be accurate. Five studies test these predictions and reveal some demographic characteristics associated with self-beliefs about susceptibility to persuasion. The findings thus have important implications for advertising practitioners.     

PP for ‘product placement’or ‘puzzled public’?

This research examines the effectiveness of the European ‘PP’ symbol, recently introduced as a warning of product placement in locally produced television programmes. The authors test whether this symbol counters the pervasive effect of product placement on purchase intention. Study 1 shows that the symbol does not prompt resistance to the influence of product placement. This is because the majority of consumers neither notice nor comprehend the symbol. In Study 2, two training methods are tested to increase the symbol’s effectiveness: (1) verbal label training and (2) a combination of verbal label training and information training. The addition of information training is necessary to increase the symbol’s noticeability, whereas verbal label training helps increase the symbol’s comprehensibility and effectiveness in activating persuasion knowledge and decreasing purchase intention. Finally, the results provide evidence that brand recall is crucial for resistance to product placement, suggesting the importance of brand recall as a moderator of resistance processes.     

Examining the Third‐Person Effect of Baseline Omission in Numerical Comparison: The Role of Consumer Persuasion Knowledge

Marketers often use numerical comparisons in promotional claims to signal superior product offerings. A potentially misleading practice involves omitting the reference point deliberately in order to make the focal claim more appealing—a persuasion tactic referred to as “baseline omission” in the present research. In two experiments, this research demonstrates that consumers tend to perceive this tactic as more effective on others than on themselves. The self‐others difference is more salient among consumers with more persuasion knowledge. Consumers’ concerns about its effectiveness on themselves, rather than on others, better predict their supportiveness to regulate the use of baseline omission.     

The Selection and Retention of Law Firms: A Study of the Perceptions of Corporate Officers

ABSTRACT

Mood states have generated considerable activity in many diverse fields, including psychology and marketing. While this research has been extended to include a variety of applications, the uniqueness of services provides a particularly sound environment to apply mood states and their effects on persuasion. In this context, this article reviews current applications of moods, and addresses how they can be strategically used to facilitate persuasion by service marketers who have contact with clients.     

Ex Libris

Using humour to communicate threatening information in advertising has often been observed in practice, but seldom been tested in research. Integrating the humour and threat persuasion literature, the current research tested the effects of humorous threat persuasion and need for cognition (NFC) as a measure of one’s processing motivation and capacity. A significant three-way interaction between humour, threat level and NFC emerged where low-NFC participants responded more positively to the no-humour condition than the humour condition with low threat, and more positively to the humour condition than the no-humour condition in the high-threat advertisement. The opposite was observed for high-NFC participants. Implications for both theory and practice are provided.