Monetary policy and inflation in South Africa: A VECM augmented with foreign variables

We develop a structural cointegrated vector autoregressive (VAR) model with weakly exogenous foreign variables, known as an augmented VECM or VECX*, suitable for a small open economy like South Africa. This model is novel for South Africa in two ways: it is the first VECX* developed to analyse monetary policy and the first model that uses time‐varying trade weights to create the foreign series. We impose three significant long‐run relations (augmented purchasing power parity, uncovered interest parity and Fisher parity) to investigate the effect of a monetary policy shock on inflation. The results suggest the effective transmission of monetary policy.     

外汇储备增长、货币冲销对物价水平及社会产出的动态影响——基于VAR的实证研究

为研究中国外汇储备增加的通货膨胀效应和货币冲销政策的有效性,本文利用2002年6月到2011年5月的数据,通过建立VAR模型,对外汇储备增加和货币冲销政策对物价水平以及社会产出水平的动态影响进行考察。研究结果表明,我国的外汇储备增加具有明显的通货膨胀效应,而央行的货币冲销政策对物价水平具有显著的平抑作用,同时对社会产出也没有不利影响。最后,本文从实证结果得到几点重要启示。     

The effectiveness of monetary policy in China: Evidence from a Qual VAR

Analyzing monetary policy in China is not straightforward because the People's Bank of China (PBoC) implements policy by using more than one instrument. In this paper we use a Qual VAR, a conventional VAR system augmented with binary policy announcements, to extract a latent indicator of tightening and easing pressure, respectively, for China. The model acknowledges that policy announcements are endogenous and summarizes policy by a single indicator. The Qual VAR allows us to study the impact of monetary policy in terms of unexpected changes in these latent variables, which we identify using sign restrictions. We show that the transmission of monetary policy impulses to the rest of the economy is similar to the transmission process in advanced economies in terms of both output growth and inflation despite a very different monetary policy framework. We find that bank loans are not sensitive to policy changes, which implies that window guidance is still a necessary policy tool. We also find that the impact of monetary policy shocks is asymmetric in terms of asset prices, that is, the asset price reactions differ in their sensitivity to tightening shocks and easing shocks, respectively. In particular, an easing of monetary conditions boosts stock prices while a tightening shock leaves stock prices unaffected. This shows that monetary policy is not a suitable tool to stabilize asset prices, which raises implications for financial stability and macroprudential policy.     

Determinants of households’ inflation expectations in Japan and the United States

Using a VAR model that includes survey data on households’ inflation expectations for Japan and the US, we investigate their determinants and influences on the economy and compare their properties in two countries. Short-term non-recursive restrictions are imposed taking account of simultaneous co-dependence between realized and expected inflation. We find that responding to changes in exogenous prices and to monetary policy shocks, inflation expectations adjust more quickly than does realized inflation. Compared with Japan, the effects of exogenous prices on inflation and inflation expectations in the US are not only large but also long lasting and shocks to expectations have self-fulfilling effects on inflation.     

Exploring the Case for Monetary Integration between the Chinese Mainland and Hong Kong

This paper presents an empirical investigation on an important policy issue, namely, whether there is any evidence supporting monetary integration between the Chinese mainland and Hong Kong. We follow two lines of inquiry. First, we present a series of simple tests to find the extent to which trade and/or financial linkages exist between the two regions. Second, we use simple inflation and output differentials and structural VAR techniques to test for the degree of business cycle synchronization between the two regions. The results indicate that there is evidence supporting the existence of trade linkages and that there is also support for the possible synchronization of business cycles. We discuss the implications of this for monetary integration between Hong Kong and the mainland.     

我国货币政策、通货膨胀和股票价格的相互作用机制研究

在VAR模型的基础上,讨论货币政策、通货膨胀和股票价格之间的相互作用机制。研究表明:①提高利率会使得通货膨胀和股票价格上升,但是与通货膨胀相比,股票价格受影响的程度和时间较短;②股票价格上升能够使通货膨胀小幅上升;③通货膨胀上升使得股票价格下降。     

The Impact of Inflation Uncertainty on Output Growth and Inflation in Thailand*

We explore the impact of inflation uncertainty on output growth in Thailand, an emerging market economy with moderate inflation. Inflation and output uncertainty are modeled in a bivariate constant conditional correlation generalized autoregressive conditional heteroskedastic (AR(p)‐cccGARCH(1,1)) specification. We include the exchange rate in the mean equations, and use the headline and core inflation rates and industrial production to generate inflation and output uncertainty series. These series are then used in Granger causality tests to make inferences about the effect of monetary policy‐induced inflation uncertainty. Causality tests show a positive relation from inflation to inflation uncertainty. Additionally, increased inflation uncertainty decreases output. These results are consistent with real costs associated with moderate inflation. Finally, we find no evidence that monetary policy reduced these costs.     

Explaining inflation in the period of quantitative easing in Japan: Relative-price changes,aggregate demand,and monetary policy

Concentrating on the period of quantitative easing in Japan, this paper reexamines the correlation between the asymmetry of sectoral relative-price changes and the aggregate inflation rate. This correlation is widely interpreted as evidence that short-run inflation is determined by supply-side factors; however, we study whether, in addition to the inflation rate, monetary policy and aggregate demand explain it. Using producer price index data, we show, first, that the positive and significant effect of relative-price change asymmetries on inflation is not robust with respect to various indicators of asymmetry. Second, using a VAR framework, we find that aggregate demand robustly affects the measures of asymmetries, which raises doubt about whether they can be interpreted as pure supply-side indicators. Third, in addition to the indirect effect via measures of asymmetries, demand directly affects inflation. Thus, we reject the claim that the recent disinflation/deflation period in Japan can be understood as primarily a supply-side phenomenon and suggest that the main driving force was demand, whereas supply and monetary policy were of lesser importance.     

Inflation targeting in India: A comparison with the multiple indicator approach

The empirical literature on identification and measurement of the impact of monetary policy shocks on the real side of the economy is fairly comprehensive for developed economies, but very limited for emerging and transition economies. In this study, we propose an identification scheme for a developing economy (taking India as a case study), which is able to capture the monetary transmission mechanism for that economy without giving rise to empirical anomalies. Using a VAR approach with recursive contemporaneous restrictions, we identify monetary policy shocks by modelling the reaction function of the central bank and structure of that economy. The effect of monetary policy shocks on the exchange rate and other macroeconomic variables is consistent with the predictions of a broad set of theoretical models. This set-up is used to build a hypothetical case of inflation targeting where the monetary policy instrument is set after assessing the current values of inflation only. This is in contrast with the ‘multiple indicator approach’ currently followed by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). The results in this study suggest that the demand effects of interest rate are stronger than the exchange rate effects. There is also evidence of the mitigation of potential conflict between exchange rate and interest rate, one of main monetary policy dilemmas of the RBI in inflation targeting.     

How should Central Banks Respond to Non-neutral Inflation Expectations?

This paper investigates the net real inflation effect on output in ten countries, comprising both advanced and developing countries. An indicator is introduced to compute the net inflation effect on output (NIEO) based on the difference between two concepts of core inflation, where both are computed using the decomposition of VAR residuals. We find that for all countries, when inflation is increasing the NIEO is significantly positive and is negative during periods of decreasing inflation. Typically, countries which follow anti-inflationary policies if the NIEO is of small magnitude suffer relatively minimal damage in output, whereas if the same policies are undertaken when the NIEO is large the damaging effects on output could be much greater. This suggests that the NIEO could be a useful indicator of the likely effects of policy, especially for countries which have frequent episodes of high inflation, and in those countries which employ inflation-targeting policy, as the timing of monetary policy actions could be optimized to take account of this real effect of inflation.     

The Exchange Rate and the Monetary Transmission Mechanism in Germany

For the conduct of monetary policy under floating exchange rates it is important to understand the role of the exchange rate in the monetary transmission mechanism (MTM). The timing and the magnitude of the effects of a change in the exchange rate on output and inflation may be quite different from traditional interest rate channels, thereby affecting optimal policy. In this paper we examine the exchange rate channel in the MTM in Germany by estimating an identified VAR model. Two features of the results are highlighted. The effect of a policy shock on the exchange rate accelerates the pass-through of policy into prices and leads to a different response of the various components of GDP. We then show that these qualitative effects can be duplicated in a general equilibrium model for a semi-small open economy with sticky prices and wages that is calibrated to capture the main features of the German economy.     

Macroeconomic impact of monetary policy shocks: Evidence from recent experience in Thailand

This paper investigates the monetary transmission mechanism in Thailand, employing a VAR approach. It is found that the Bank of Thailand has leverage over the real interest rate in the short run due to inflation inertia. It is also found that the Thai monetary transmission mechanism has important international dimensions. More specifically, monetary contraction has stronger negative effects on import demand in the short run even though import prices fall.     

Central Bank Balance Sheet Policies and Inflation Expectations

We analyse the empirical effects of credit easing and quantitative easing on inflation expectations and exchange rates. Both monetary policy strategies are summarised in measures for composition and size of the central bank balance sheet and are included in a VAR model. The results show that changes in balance sheet size had positive, albeit weak effects on inflation expectations in Japan, while the effects were negligible in the euro area. By contrast, an increasing balance sheet size is associated with reduced short-term inflation expectations in the US and UK, pointing at negative signalling effects. Shocks to balance sheet size or composition have no substantial effects on long-term inflation expectations in the euro area, US and UK. An expanding balance sheet size is associated with a depreciation of the euro, pound sterling and Japanese yen.     

Monetary policy rules for a developing country: Evidence from Pakistan

This paper estimates forward-looking monetary policy rules to examine the interest rate setting behavior of the State Bank of Pakistan. Considering the external constraints on monetary policy, core inflation and a country-specific measure of the output gap, we demonstrate that the State Bank of Pakistan reacts to changes in inflation, the output gap and the federal funds rate.     

市场信心如何影响中国经济——基于社会融资分解的视角

通过直接融资、间接融资、企业家信心、消费者信心等一系列指标构建向量自回归VAR模型,研究控制市场信心前后,直接融资和间接融资对货币政策传导的效应.研究结果表明:控制市场信心后,间接融资对货币政策最终目标的影响强于直接融资,未控制市场信心前,直接融资对货币政策最终目标的影响强于间接融资;市场信心增强了以社会融资为中介目标的货币政策的传导效率,且其对直接融资的影响强于间接融资.     

Evidence on the Effects of Money Growth on Inflation with Regime Switching

Since the latter half of 2010, a new round of inflation has gradually been manifesting in China. The debate regarding whether excess money supply is responsible for this inflation has attracted scholars to investigate the effects of money growth on inflation. In this paper, we use correlation analysis to confirm the comovement between growth of monetary aggregates and inflation. We explore the asymmetric effects of monetary policy on inflation using the Markov regime‐switching model. The empirical results show that monetary policy can be more effective in curbing inflation in a high inflation state than in boosting the price level in a low inflation state. However, simply tightening the money supply might not be sufficient to suppress the price level. To this end, the Chinese Government should adopt other policies, such as supply stabilization policies, to help suppress the price level. Our study can help policy‐makers to determine the actual economic state and provides some policy implications for the current inflation.     

Was ECB's monetary policy optimal?

Overall, the ECB managed monetary policy quite satisfactorily in the first phase of EMU. Nevertheless, this paper asks whether monetary policy could not have been improved. In the last three years, Euroland was confronted with the first external shock. Oil prices increased considerably, leading to an increase of headline inflation of over one percentage point in 2000–01. With a specific Taylor rule one can very well understand, how the ECB sets interest rates, but it turns out that monetary policy based on the estimated Taylor reaction function was rather backward than forward looking. While it reacted with a lag to the actions of the U.S. Fed, it was overly cautious by targeting total HICP inflation. Here it is strongly argued and also demonstrated with model simulations that a monetary policy oriented towards core inflation would have resulted in a much better economic performance. The business cycle downturn could have been mitigated with no additional inflation risks.     

Bayesian analysis of time-varying parameter vector autoregressive model for the Japanese economy and monetary policy

This paper analyzes the time-varying parameter vector autoregressive (TVP–VAR) model for the Japanese economy and monetary policy. The parameters are allowed to follow a random walk process and estimated using the Markov chain Monte Carlo method. The empirical result reveals the time-varying structure of the Japanese economy and monetary policy during the period from 1981 to 2008. The marginal likelihoods of the TVP–VAR model and other fixed parameter VAR models are estimated for model comparison. The estimated marginal likelihoods indicate that the TVP–VAR model best fits the Japanese economic data.     

广义货币供应量M_2作为货币政策中介目标对产出的效应分析——基于1992～2005年季度数据的实证分析

运用计量经济学方法对广义货币供应量M2与GDP的时间序列变量进行ADF检验,格兰杰因果检验,然后建立VAR模型和脉冲响应函数(IRF),分析以M2作为货币政策的中介目标对产出GDP的效应,最后对以M2作为中介目标的合理性进行评价和分析,并提出加强M2作为货币政策中介目标对产出更为有效的相关建议。     

开放条件下货币政策的资产价格传导机制研究

本文研究开放经济条件下货币政策在资本市场、汇率市场和商品市场之间的传导过程。文章首先构建了开放条件下货币政策的资产价格传导模型,并与传统货币政策传导模型进行比较分析,认为它更合适地解释了1999年后中国的货币政策传导机制。最后用VAR方法证明开放条件下货币政策的资产价格传导机制具有系统稳定性。