The role of rationalization in consumer decision processes: A revisionist approach to consumer behavior

Consumer behavior theory, as it has largely evolved from economics with its rigid adherence to marginal utility theory, suggests that consumers are highly rational and that they basically strive to maximize utility or satisfaction by the careful rationing of resources. In this paper, the typical assumptions in consumer decision process models are reviewed and analyzed, the empirical evidence supporting the models of the rational consumer is challenged, the concept of rationalization is developed and the existential support for the concept is examined, the role and significance of alternative ego state on consumer decision processes are explained and finally, the rudiments of a revisionist approach to consumer behavior are advanced. An earlier draft of this paper entitled “Consumer Decision Processes: The Role and Influence of Rationalization” was presented at the annual meeting of The American Psychological Association Division 23 in 1977. The author was assisted in the preparation and development of this earlier draft by Dr. Chem Narayana. This assistance is herewith acknowledged.     

Leisure and consumer behavior

The topic of consumer's leisure-time behavior is receiving increasing attention by marketers as Americans' leisure-related spending rapidly approaches the $200 billion level. This paper first examines the concept of “leisure” and then reviews various measurement issues. It concludes with several marketing implications and suggested issues needing further research.     

Stress and consumer behavior

Although stress research has received increased attention in the behavioral and social sciences, it has been virtually ignored by marketing researchers. This paper attempts to advance the stress perspective as a useful framework in consumer research. First, the author presents theoretical and conceptual foundations of stress research. Second, the author develops a general conceptual model of the causes and consequences of stress on the basis of theory and research. The model serves as a blueprint for presenting theory and research on stress, organizing and interpreting findings of consumer studies in the context of stress theory, and developing propositions for needed research. Finally, the author provides a research agenda to guide future studies in this area.     

The value of user image in quelling aberrant consumer behavior

Shoplifting has reached epidemic proportions. Traditional approaches to keeping this behavior under control have met with limited success. This article explores the use of user image to decrease shoplifting. The analysis supports the approach. If the image of the “typical shoplifter” is made more negative, individuals anxious to disassociate themselves with the negative image will be less likely to shoplift.     

The role of expectations in the determination of consumer satisfaction

The purpose of this paper is to explore the three determinants of consumer satisfaction, i.e. Predictive Expectations, Normative Expectations and Comparative Expectations. This study applied the confirmation of expectations paradigm to each of the types of expectations. The efficacy of the paradigm in the prediction of consumer satisfaction is examined. Comparative analyses of the three types of expectations show that normative expectations and their confirmation are the best predictors of satisfaction. Suggestions for further research on measurement and conceptual development of consumer satisfaction are also offered.     

Models of consumer behavior: The state of the art

Models of consumer behavior have gained much acceptance since the early sixties. The purpose of this article is to examine the state of the art by reviewing the often cited models: Nicosia, Howard-Sheth, and Engel-Blackwell-Kollat. Specifically, a major objective is to consider these models from their practical utility standpoint, i.e., whether the models can be tested and used by marketers. To accomplish this, a set of criteria is developed for evaluation of models in general, and consumer/buyer behavior models in particular. The criteria used for evaluating the state of the art in consumer behavior models are largely derived from model building sources in various fields. The results indicate that although the models are quite impressive in scope, they are inherently weak to be of much help to the marketing practitioner. Indeed, none of the models have been tested as a whole in their original form because they lack specificity and thus are difficult, if not impossible, to operationalize. This article is partially based on a paper which received an award in an Academy of Marketing Science student paper competioion. The Academy encourages scholarly work by various groups through annual competitions and awards.     

Life course perspectives on consumer behavior

Although marketing researchers have recognized the importance of early life experiences in shaping patterns of consumer behavior in later life, they have inadequate theoretical and methodological bases for investigating consumption-related issues over the life course. As a result, relatively little is known about the changes consumers experience over time, how they respond to these changes, and how early life experiences affect their consumer behavior. The life course approach, developed as an interdisciplinary program for studying various aspects of behavior, offers a framework for filling gaps in previous efforts to study consumer behavior over time. The purpose of this article is to advocate the life course approach for studying various types of market behavior. First, the author presents a general conceptual life course framework that serves as a blueprint for discussing theoretical perspectives and organizing, integrating, and reporting consumer research relevant to the life course paradigm. Second, methods of data analysis compatible with life course research are discussed. Finally, select areas of interest to marketing researchers (materialism and compulsive consumption) illustrate how the life course approach might contribute to previous efforts to study these consumer behaviors in an innovative way.     

A conceptualization of the consumer behavior discipline

Consumer behavior, as a social science discipline, is analyzed from a developmental perspective. Seven developmental levels or stages are identified reflecting the growing role of consumer behavior study in applied social settings. A classification schema is also presented in an attempt to categorize consumer behavior research     

Stratification in consumer behavior research: A re-examination

The role of the stratification concept in consumer behavior research is examined and compared to its sociological foundations. Misapplications of the concept in consumer research along with weaknesses in methodology, hypothesis formulation and criterion variable selection are identified and remedies suggested. Strengths and weaknesses of different stratification scales for consumer research are assessed and the key issues involved in stratification research are illustrated by reviewing the stream of stratification and consumer research in the area of banking behavior.     

Theory in consumer behavior: A status report

This article examines the attitudes of 40 opinion leaders in marketing toward theory in consumer behavior. These individuals exhibited favorable attitudes toward theory in marketing in general. More favorable perceptions of the value of the contributions of theory to consumer behavior existed than for promotion and channels of distribution. In comparison to eight other areas of marketing, the consumer behavior area was perceived as having made the greatest past contribution to marketing thought and the one most likely to make worthwhile future contributions. The sample believed that much future effort was needed in progressing toward a general theory of consumer behavior and that such effort would indeed be forthcoming.     

中国居民消费行为的几点分析

消费,一直是国民经济中极为重要的一个组成部分。而中国居民的消费行为明显有着其自身独特的习惯和偏好,研究中国居民独特的消费行为特征对于如何刺激我国居民消费和扩大内需有着十分重要的意义。本文即指出了中国居民比较突出的几点消费者行为特征,并分析了其成因及影响,最终在此基础上给出了相应的政策建议。     

The impact of alternative consumer education strategies on safety knowledge and behavior

The article describes an experimental study which attempted to increase children's awareness of proper safety behavior as well as to increase actual safe behavior in the use of playground equipment. Results indicated that modest to substantial gains were made in both knowledge and behavior, and that among the alternative consumer education programs, the strategy that was most successful was the use of the greatest amount of information with the youngest children.     

Factor analysis: Key tool in consumer behavior research

Quantitative techniques are in frequent use by students of consumer behavior. Most of these techniques, such as correlation analysis and Chi-square tests for significant differences are treated in the various quantitative methods courses taught in or for schools of business across the country. Factor analysis, on the other hand, is rarely included in the content of these courses. Nevertheless, it is not uncommon to find journal articles in which results of factor analytic studies are reported. This state of affairs must produce some frustration among marketing practitioners and even among some academicians, who find it difficult to interpret those results, much less understand how they were obtained. This article is designed to assist those who need to read and comprehend journal articles, who need to discuss such articles with others and who may find it desirable to use factor analysis in their own work.     

影响二手车市场消费者购买行为的因子分析

随着汽车大量进入家庭，我国汽车保有量和二手车消费群体数量不断增加，国内二手车市场不断成熟和扩大。本文通过实证研究方法，对汽车消费者的二手车购买行为进行因子分析，归纳出汽车消费者二手车购买行为的影响因子，为经销商改善二手车服务质量提供一定的理论依据。     

Product classification and the theory of consumer behavior

Product classifications have been used as a normative framework to generalize product characteristics and market responses. To be more useful in guiding marketing strategy, classification schemes should incorporate the characteristics of the consumer's decision process. This article attempts to establish the link between product classification and consumer decision theory by demonstrating a direct association between Copeland's well-known convenience-shopping goods typology and the Howard-Sheth model of consumer decision-making.     

Situational and brand attitude models of consumer choice behavior

Three situational factors may directly affect consumers' brand intentions: the likelihood a given situation will occur for the consumer, the likelihood the product will be a part of the situation, and the likelihood that a given brand will be consumed in the situation. Models relating situational effects and consumer attitudes to brand intentions are discussed in this article. The literature on situational influences in consumer behavior is briefly reviewed.     

Self-congruity versus functional congruity: Predictors of consumer behavior

Four studies were conducted to test the hypothesis that (1) consumer behavior is more strongly predicted by functional congruity than by self-congruity, and (2) functional congruity is influenced by self-congruity. The pattern of the results provides support for hypotheses.     

Attitudes of advertising executives toward the consumer behavior course

What should be taught to marketing students has always been an intriguing question. The marketing curriculum as a whole and specific courses have been the topic of much debate. One of the marketing courses, consumer behavior, was the subject of this research. A survey of advertising executives revealed some interesting perceptions regarding the consumer behavior course. Most executives believed the course was helpful in making decisions in the advertising area. However, the advertising executives ranked the consumer behavior course as only moderately important in usefulness to advertisers when compared with nine other marketing courses. Interestingly, the executives that had completed a consumer behavior course ranked the course lower in importance than the executives who had not taken the course. Generally, advertising executives believed the consumer behavior course was too abstract and theoretical in orientation and could be imporved through the use of case studies and more direct application examples of the consumer behavior theories presented in the course.     

On the significance of statistically insignificant results in consumer behavior experiments

Experimentation is the sine qua non of consumer behavior research, and much of what is thought to be known about the behavior of consumers is based on findings from experiments. However, many articles that report consumer behavior experiments contain one or more results that are significantly insignificant. That is, one or more experimental results are so unusually weak or minuscule that they are unlikely to have come about by chance. As such, significantly insignificant results can be due to the “failure” of the theory underlying an experiment and/or the flawed design or implementation of an experiment. Consequently, significantly insignificant results have implications for the theories and methodologies employed in consumer behavior experiments, the quality of conclusions drawn from the experiments, and the credibility of the consumer behavior research discipline as a whole.