The impact of the biotechnology industry on local economic development in the Boston and San Diego metropolitan areas

High-technology/knowledge-intensive industries have become of increasing importance as sources of job growth and revenue to communities seeking to develop their economies. Communities want these industries so that they can be as economically vigorous as possible. However, although high-tech industries such as biotechnology are coveted as drivers of economic development, the local development impact of these clusters of regional innovation is not entirely positive. This is especially true with regard to the impact upon the low and semi-skilled populations. In some regions, the new growth generated by high-tech clusters has converted relatively inexpensive open space into haphazard commercial and industrial use that has contributed to sprawl, transportation congestion, lack of affordable housing, and gentrification. These problems are particularly evident in the Boston and San Diego metropolitan areas, which rank as the second and third largest U.S. biotechnology clusters respectively. This paper seeks to gauge the local economic development impact—especially with regard to the labor and real estate markets—of the biotechnology clusters in the San Diego and Boston metropolitan areas.     

Innovation, embeddedness and policy: evidence from life sciences in three UK regions

This paper draws upon a survey of the life science and biotechnology regions of Oxford, Central Scotland and South West England to examine the innovation and embeddedness traits of the regions. The insights into the compositional weaknesses and strengths of the regions suggest opportunities and threats for the future development of the UK's life sciences and biotechnology. The discussion moves forward debates on biotechnology, regional innovation, regional economic development and policy by posing research questions relating to the gap of knowledge of two under-researched regions, the need for a differentiated view of regions and a public policy approach tailored towards them, as well as the prospects of 'engineering' high-tech regions. Some of the highlighted policy challenges are common to the three regions, while others are region-specific and reflect the variations of regional make-up and stage of development.     

Innovation,embeddedness and policy: evidence from life sciences in three UK regions

This paper draws upon a survey of the life science and biotechnology regions of Oxford, Central Scotland and South West England to examine the innovation and embeddedness traits of the regions. The insights into the compositional weaknesses and strengths of the regions suggest opportunities and threats for the future development of the UK's life sciences and biotechnology. The discussion moves forward debates on biotechnology, regional innovation, regional economic development and policy by posing research questions relating to the gap of knowledge of two under-researched regions, the need for a differentiated view of regions and a public policy approach tailored towards them, as well as the prospects of ‘engineering’ high-tech regions. Some of the highlighted policy challenges are common to the three regions, while others are region-specific and reflect the variations of regional make-up and stage of development.     

Scenarios on the future of biotechnology

The major areas of research and development in biotechnology are maturing at a rapid rate, and may soon converge with one another. These emerging biotechnology areas range from the development of new medicines and drugs, genetically engineered foods, biologically controlled industrial manufacturing processes, and biologically based computing devices to the creation of new industrial materials and devices based upon biological structures and the use of biotechnology in food production. Each of these research areas carries the potential for strong societal reaction. To explore the potential impact of biotechnology on society, two fundamental drivers that influence societal acceptance of biotechnology are described. First, the extent to which technological integration proceeds may strongly impact the way society uses and perceives biotechnology. Second, the degree to which the public eventually accepts biotechnologically derived products and processes as legitimate and reliable alternatives to current products may shape both market demand and public policy. Taken together, these drivers suggest four discrete alternative scenarios for the future of biotechnology. Implications of these scenarios are discussed.     

A case study on obstacles to the growth of biotechnology

Why has a biotechnology industry developed much faster in some countries than in others? Studies indicate that public funding for research is not sufficient for the establishment of a strong biotech industry. What should countries and regions do then, in order to become globally competitive in the area? In this paper I concentrate on the upstream section of biotech growth - the creation of new biotechnology companies - and take a closer look at the case of Portugal, a country where the industry has long been at an embryonic stage. It becomes apparent from the analysis that generalist, top-down measures to stimulate general technological development may not be appropriate to foster a sector composed of many unique characteristics. Evidence from several countries suggests that there is a group of specific factors which all have to be in place simultaneously to allow the emergence of a biotech industry. A careful analysis of the Portuguese example - when set against the background of European and Global biotech - may help regions such as southeast Asia and southern Europe define their paths to bio-competitiveness.     

Using resources in R&D policy planning: Brazil, the Amazon and biotechnology

Brazil's research and development (R&D) policies are examined in light of changes in economic direction especially as it pertains to competition. In a competitive environment, regions should develop industrial applications and expertise in areas that coincide with their resources. These could be human resources but could, as in the focus of this paper, be useful resources that differentiate the region from others in the world. This differentiation provides an advantage to the region. Brazil and its Amazon region has the large majority of the world's rare genes. In biotechnology, genes are “green gold,” and Brazil is slowly developing a biotechnology industry and beginning to tap into the Brazilian Amazon region's economic biotech potential. This region has enormous potential for the development of biotech-related technologies and products. This paper discusses the relationship between resources and an R&D strategy using as an example the recent developments in biotechnology research in Brazil and the role of the Amazon region in the development of a Brazilian biotechnology industry. It recommends a number of policy initiatives that will enhance Brazil's focus on biotechnology.     

金融发展对经济增长影响的区域差异——基于变系数模型的实证研究

通过缩小研究对象的区域范围来控制地理因素对金融发展与经济增长间关系的影响,利用1994—2009年湖南省14个地区的数据研究金融发展对经济增长影响的地区差异。基于变系数模型检验、随机系数模型检验,选择似不相关回归方法进行实证分析。研究结果显示:湖南省14个地区的金融发展对当地经济增长的影响存在差异,多数地区的金融发展对其经济增长具有阻碍作用。     

European Agricultural Biotechnology Preferences and Policy: Growth and Trade Implications

European Union policies effectively prohibit the production and consumption of genetically modified agricultural products. This paper examines the prohibition's effects on research and development, innovation, trade flows, and economic growth using a Heckscher–Ohlin–Samuelson trade model with a neo‐ Schumpeterian approach. Restrictive European Union policies on biotechnology production and consumption result in: an effective export subsidy of capital to the South; changing trade flows; North America being the dominant producer of biotechnology research and development; the South being a dominant producer of biotechnology products; and the European Union being the dominant producer of traditional agricultural products.     

The influence of causation and effectuation logics on targeted policies: the cases of Singapore and Israel

We examine the causation and effectuation logics for implementing targeted biotechnology policies using two case studies: Singapore (causation) and Israel (effectuation). After more than a decade of implementing targeted biotechnology policies, both Singapore and Israel have failed to create fully fledged biotech clusters. Singapore has been unsuccessful in creating vibrant entrepreneurial activity that will support its transformation into a knowledge economy. Israel has failed to turn its 1000 small, dedicated biotechnology firms into a substantial engine of growth and employment. The paper questions how these two policy approaches influenced the targeting of the biotechnology sectors and identifies the limits of these approaches in supporting targeting. We conclude that a combination of the two logics is needed, especially when targeting complex sectors with a yet unknown development path.     

Does a clustered location matter for high-technology companies' performance? The case of biotechnology in the Netherlands

Young entrepreneurial companies in biotechnology tend to cluster in space, nearby research universities and research centers. This pattern is often ascribed to the availability of external economies, mainly local knowledge spillovers that help to reduce the uncertainty from a disruptive technology faced by these companies. Given a shortage of empirical research on cluster advantages and performance of clustered companies, we present results of a comparative analysis of clustered and non-clustered companies in biotechnology and Bionanotechnology in the Netherlands. It appears that, among other influences, a clustered location has no significant influence on innovation and speed of growth. However, a location in the largest cluster (Leiden) does contribute to a better performance in terms of innovativeness compared with all other locations. The kind of external economies involved seems to vary according to the stage in the knowledge value chain and the segment in biotechnology industry. Knowledge spillovers tend to be local for companies involved in new drugs and diagnostics research only in the first stage of the knowledge chain and for service companies regardless of the stage in the knowledge chain.     

The conditions for the development of a biotechnology industry in Portugal: the impact of country specific factors

The innovation style of a country is dependent upon its distinctive capabilities and its government' policies. Three basic factors are involved: its scientific capabilities, its infrasturcture for transferring research from the public domain into industry, and its manufacturing base and industrial know-how. Most research looks at these three factors in relation to advanced economies, Asian Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs) and 'third world' countries. This paper addresses these issues from the perspective of a European late-industrializing country (Portugal). It uses the twin ideas of National Innovation Systems and 'technological systems' to analyze the development of biotechnology in Portugal. In so doing it illustrates the impact of country specific factors on this development, and the problems assoicated with 'imitation'. The focus of the research is on Dedicated Biotechnology Firms (DBFs), as they are seen as intermediaries between the public science base and the productive sector. It examines the evolution of the biotechnology industry in Portugal, provides an overview of govermment policies, and finally discusses the implications for the creation and development of DBFs in Portugal. The research shows that there was a government effort to create a science base in this field, but there was no parallel strategy to develop a biotechnology industry. There was (and still is) little incentive to use the results of biotechnological research, and little match between technological and market opportunities. In conclusion, the paper argues that policies should be developed to bridge the gap between public research and industry. This will require mechanisms that, going beyond the notion of 'technology transfer', promote an effective transformation of advanced knowledge intergrated into products and services,a nd facilitate the dialogue and exchange between groups with diverse capabilities, objectives and languages.     

The evolution and performance of biotechnology regional systems of innovation

The paper maintains that biotechnology regions develop as complexsystems: they start with star scientists in research universities,generating knowledge spillovers, then move progressively towardsregional technology markets. In the process they attract venturecapital (or modify the behaviour of existing venture capitalfirms with the addition of biotechnology portfolios). The routinesof universities are also modified with the addition of intellectualproperty and technology transfer offices intervening as sellersin the newly created knowledge markets. The paper also considerswhether companies located in regional agglomerations grow fasterthan isolated ones, and whether companies spun-off from universitieshave a better performance than start-ups. The study is basedon about 90 Canadian-based publicly quoted biotechnology companies.     

Biotechnology Development in Spain: A Change of Paradigm?

This article presents a quantitative and qualitative analysis of the Spanish biotechnology sector, including its scientific, business, policy and social aspects. The study differentiates two sub-sectors, considered to be the most representative: Biopharma and Agro-food. The results show that biotechnology development in Spain has entered a new phase. Traditionally, research and development in Spain followed an unstructured path built around regional spaces and driven by factors and influences external to Spain. However, the emergence of a fast-growing sector of spin-off companies from the public research system, specifically in the Biopharma sector, points to a change of model of development of the industry, on the national as well as the regional level. The data also show the key role which public policy plays in creating a suitable framework for innovation and point to the need of analyzing the influence of social and cultural factors on the development of the biotechnology sector.     

Biotechnology Development in Spain: A Change of Paradigm?

This article presents a quantitative and qualitative analysis of the Spanish biotechnology sector, including its scientific, business, policy and social aspects. The study differentiates two sub-sectors, considered to be the most representative: Biopharma and Agro-food. The results show that biotechnology development in Spain has entered a new phase. Traditionally, research and development in Spain followed an unstructured path built around regional spaces and driven by factors and influences external to Spain. However, the emergence of a fast-growing sector of spin-off companies from the public research system, specifically in the Biopharma sector, points to a change of model of development of the industry, on the national as well as the regional level. The data also show the key role which public policy plays in creating a suitable framework for innovation and point to the need of analyzing the influence of social and cultural factors on the development of the biotechnology sector.     

美国、欧盟和日本生物技术产业政策研究

文章分析研究了美国、欧盟和日本的生物技术产业发展进程、所取得的成就,特别是三国为鼓励和推动其生物技术产业发展所制定和实施的产业政策。其研究可为我国政府制定相关产业发展政策提供借鉴和参考依据。     

生物技术产业集群的动力机制及其演进——基于国外典型集群的多案例研究

在产业集群理论的总体框架下,本文以国外五个典型集群为研究对象,归纳了生物技术产业集群演化的关键动力要素,即科学研究、风险投资、传统大企业介入、政府支持、中介机构、市场需求、创新文化、相关产业支撑、龙头企业以及"龙头企业-专家型公司-科研机构"之间的良性互动。在此基础上,研究了要素的演进和集群发展的内在规律。最后,结合我国的实际情况,基于政府的视角得出若干促进我国生物园区发展的启示。     

The Role of the Health System in Health Biotechnology in Developing Countries

This paper examines the role of local health systems in developing countries in health biotechnology innovation. The heath systems encompass the final users of health biotechnology products and services. In innovation studies in general, users have been identified as playing vital roles as sources for innovation and in shaping the innovation process. It is therefore of interest to cast light upon the role of users in the health biotechnology innovation in developing countries. This paper briefly reviews literature on science and technology based health innovation in both industrialised and developing countries. It then examines to what extent the focus of developing countries is on their local health problems and explores the linkages between the organisations involved in research and development of health biotechnology products and services with the local health system, and thereby identifies the main roles of their own health systems in the innovation process. The paper bases this analysis on research on publication patterns and case studies on leading developing countries in health biotechnology and focuses particularly on health biotechnology development in Brazil, Cuba and India.     

德国生物技术产业发展现状及其研发创新

生物技术是当前最具潜力和最富活力的科技领域之一。德国联邦政府认为,从传统化石能源时代向生物经济时代过渡是人类社会发展的必然趋势．未来生命科学和生物技术将更广泛地应用于农业、林业、渔业、畜牧业、食品、化工、制药、能源、环保和商贸服务等众多产业领域。知识生物经济将提高国家竞争力。2010年11月,德国联邦政府发布了《生物经济2030：国家研究战略》。包括德国在内的世界各国政府都高度重视推动本国生物技术研发创新和产业化发展。本文对德国生物技术产业发展最新情况进行了调研,并对其研发创新及其产业化发展的政策机制进行了总结分析。     

Globalization and the connection of remote communities: A review of household effects and their biodiversity implications

The remote regions of the world provide refuge to a disproportionate amount of the Earth's biodiversity. As globalization continues, isolated human communities in these regions are increasingly connected to global market, migration, and technology networks. We review the diffuse literature on the household effects of changing market access, migration, and technology adoption in remote regions and implications for native biodiversity. Market access affects biodiversity in remote communities through changes in household economics and social networks. Migration, either to or from remote settlements, affects biodiversity through changes in population, remittances, human capital, and social networks. Finally, we consider effects due to production, public infrastructure, and information and communication technologies. There is much ambiguity surrounding these causal pathways, and thus we also examine the roles of various ecological, household, community, and institutional mediating factors in determining the impacts of global connection. Finally, we explore the limitations of our current knowledge and research practices and propose directions for future work to address key uncertainties in theory and evidence as well as weaknesses in methodological approaches. We recommend a broad and interdisciplinary mode of inquiry as the best means toward clarifying globalization's impacts on human settlements and the biodiversity harbored in the Earth's remaining remote regions.     

MEDICAL RESEARCH AND GENETIC RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: THE CASE OF TAXOL

Commercial development of the anti-cancer drug taxol has involved a complex set of interlocking research agreements. This paper explores the implications of such agreements and discusses diverse policy issues surrounding taxol development. Among these are forest management, species preservation, intellectual property rights, and the economics of biomedical research. Advances in genetic research increasingly have linked natural resource and technology policy issues. Institutional innovations in public/private research arrangements play a vital role in biotechnology development but are poorly understood. Policymakers need formal analyses of such agreements in order to evaluate complex research programs.