The influence of tempo,loudness, and gender of listener on responses to music

This study explores the impact of gender and two psychophysical stimulus properties of instrumental music (tempo and loudness) on hedonic responses, including judgments of music's affective character and behavioral intentions toward the music. Digital recording technology was used to create multiple versions of an original musical score that varied tempo but held pitch constant. A 2 (slow/fast) by 2 (soft/loud) by 2 (male/female) between-Ss factorial experiment was conducted. Results indicate that gender moderates the influence of loudness, such that females respond more positively to music at lower volumes. Implications for the differential targeting of men and women through music in ads and in retail environments are discussed. (c) 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. © 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Let the music play or not: The influence of background music on consumer behavior

This study concerns the effect that music has on consumer behavior in two different retail contexts during regular opening hours. Two studies were conducted in a field setting with consumers (N=550). Consumers were recruited to answer questions regarding behavioral measures, attitudes, and mood during days when background music was played. The conclusions from the two studies are that music affects consumer behavior, but also that the type of retail store and gender influences both the strength and direction of the effect.     

The interaction of retail density and music tempo: Effects on shopper responses

Research examining the effects of store environment on shoppers has found that a number of atmospheric cues have significant effects on shoppers' cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses. To date, retail atmospheric cues have been studied in isolation, instead of simultaneously, like they occur in the retail setting. This study examines the interactive effects of two atmospheric cues—retail density and music tempo—and their impact on shopper responses within a real shopping environment. Based on the schema incongruity model, it is found that shopper hedonic and utilitarian evaluations of the shopping experience are highest under conditions of slow music/high density and fast music/low density. Significant main effects of music tempo are found for behavioral responses such as approach/avoidance tendency and extent of browsing behavior. The results underscore the need to examine interactive effects of atmospheric cues to better understand the impact of the store environment on shoppers. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Background music tempo effects on food evaluations and purchase intentions

This article is a report of results of three studies investigating effects of fast versus slow background musical tempo on physiology, cognition, and emotions. Two pilot studies first measure consumer perceptions of tempo. In Studies 1 and 2, participants view a short video restaurant advertisement featuring fast or slow background music along with illustrations of food items. Results indicate that fast music is more effective than slow music for evoking positive taste expectations and purchase intentions. Study 3 shows that the effects observed in Studies 1 and 2 occur because fast music enhances self-reported arousal levels that then lead to enhanced moods, taste expectations, and purchase intentions. Theoretical implications regarding effects of music on emotional responses are discussed, as are practical managerial implications for using fast music as a persuasive technique.     

The influence of quality cues and typicality cues on restaurant purchase intention

Prior research on cue management has dominantly focused on cues consumers use to infer product quality. Only a few studies have dealt with cues that allow consumers to infer category typicality. Connecting these research streams we show how different cues affect both product quality and category typicality assessments, how these perceptions interact, and how they influence purchase intention. Results of this conjoint experiment among 113 restaurant patrons indicate that typicality cues can also serve as inferences for quality, and that cues influence purchase intentions via their effect on perceived typicality rather than on perceived quality. Once a consumer has determined the usage situation and his inherent consumption goals, he is much more inclined to search for the cues such as table setting that signal the subcategory that is expected to satisfy these goals, than finding cues such as guidebook rating that are diagnostic of product quality (only). After carefully addressing typicality cues which are instrumental in stressing points of parity, brand managers can use quality cues to show the product's points of difference in a category.     

It is all in the mix: The interactive effect of music tempo and mode on in-store sales

Though practitioners have relied on tempo as a criterion to design in-store music, scant attention has been devoted to the mode of musical selections, and no consideration has been given to the potential for the interactive effects of low-level structural elements of music on actual retail sales. The current research reports a field experiment wherein the positive main effect of slow tempo on actual sales reported by Milliman (J Marketing 46 (3):86–91, 1982, J Cons Res 13 (2):286–289, 1986) is qualified by musical mode. A significant interaction between tempo and mode was evidenced, such that music in a major mode did not vary in effectiveness by tempo while music in a minor mode was significantly more effective when accompanied by a slow tempo. That is, the Milliman effect was eliminated for music in a major mode. Implications of our findings and directions for further research are discussed.     

The influence of organisational context on training success in the restaurant industry

Training plays a basic role in restaurants' success by improving the service quality provided by employees. The aim of this paper is to analyse how contextual factors, such as supervisors' support, resources' availability, opportunity to use training content, and organisational learning culture, influence training success. To that end, an empirical study was conducted on 137 restaurants. Results show that training success depends on the trainee's opportunities to use training content. Those opportunities are influenced by the resources' availability, as well as by the supervisors' support. The organisational learning culture influences training success through the resources' availability and supervisors' support.     

The need to touch: Exploring the link between music involvement and tangibility preference

Amid the increasing consumption of digital music and generally declining sales of recorded music, physical formats persist as the preferred means of storing and listening to music for many consumers. The purpose of this paper is to increase the understanding of the relationship between music involvement and preference for tangible music formats. To achieve this, we test a research model and perform a segmentation analysis based on music involvement. Findings indicate that high music involvement is positively correlated with subjective music knowledge, tangibility preference, and portable player use. Quite naturally, involvement increases music consumption in all formats, including digitized forms, but high involvement appears connected to a perception of tangible records as more valuable. The behavior of highly involved consumers suggests that digital music is not necessarily eradicating physical formats but possibly fulfilling different needs; for example, sampling and complementing vs. collecting and displaying.     

Comparison of localized and foreign restaurant brands for consumer behavior prediction

This study used two comparison studies to examine the potential brand perception of localized and foreign restaurants to predict consumer behavior. A total of 680 participants (e.g., 318 foreign restaurant customers and 362 localized restaurant customers) were included to discover and confirm the causal relationships among the quality of food and meals, environmental evaluation, willingness to pay more, and recommendations. Our study of foreign restaurant brands (Study 1) found that food and meals may indirectly affect the willingness to pay more and recommendations through providing a friendly environment. The destination's moderating role is also confirmed. Additionally, our study of localized restaurant customers (Study 2) identified the mediating roles of risk evaluation and willingness to pay more, which link the relationship between food and meals and recommendation behavior. Furthermore, destination trust was found to strengthen the relationship between risk evaluation and willingness to pay more.     

In-store music and aroma influences on shopper behavior and satisfaction

Retail markets are increasingly competitive and retailers continuously look to differentiate their retail offering. One way to differentiate is by providing a pleasant and exciting shopping ambience. This paper experimentally tests the effects of music (volume high or low) and aroma (vanilla scent present/absent) on young fashion shoppers in a real retail setting. Results show that volume of music and the presence of a vanilla aroma both have a significant impact on shoppers' emotions and satisfaction levels. Additional analysis reveals that the arousal induced by music and aroma results in increased pleasure levels, which in turn positively influences shopper behaviors, including time and money spend, approach behavior, and satisfaction with the shopping experience. Direct effects of arousal on behaviors as well as an interaction effect between music and aroma on pleasure and time spent in the store are also present. The paper contributes to the better understanding of shoppers' emotions and shopper behaviors in response to in-store atmospherics and offers retailers practical insights into how to create competitive advantage by customizing the atmosphere in their stores.     

网络直播对消费者行为的影响

在互联网不断发展的大背景下,网络直播的影响力逐渐扩展到各个领域,深入到人们生活的各个方面,其中对消费者行为的影响最为显著。为充分了解网络直播对消费者行为的影响,本文将对消费者选择、购买和使用三个方面的行为进行分析并提出相关建议。     

Effects of tempo and familiarity of background music on message processing in TV advertising: A resource‐matching perspective

This article examines effects of tempo and familiarity of background music in TV advertising. Based on the resource‐matching rationale stating that processing of a message is maximized when the resources demanded by the processing task match those people are able to make available, the authors predict an inverted‐U‐shaped relationship between the tempo and message recall. The prediction is fully supported when familiar music is used, but not when unfamiliar music is used in the background. Possible explanations of the results are offered and their implications are discussed. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

The purchase versus illegal download of music by consumers: the influence of consumer response towards the artist and music

Based on qualitative and quantitative surveys, I show that consumer responses toward a particular song and toward its performer(s) play distinct roles in explaining consumer choices to either buy or illegally download that song. The various types of consumer responses to songs and artists are first identified through qualitative research and then validated through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) of survey data. While consumer responses to music explain the need to reexperience and acquire the song, consumer responses to performers explain purchase over illegal downloading. Copyright © 2007 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effect of weather factors on restaurant sales

Weather factors have been shown to affect human behavior and mood. On the other hand, mood has a strong effect on total demand and demand for specific products. In this study, we have tested the effect of 17 different weather factors on the demand for specific restaurant menu items. We have also tested the effect of weather factors on the demand for different menu item categories, on hot and cold, and light, medium, and heavy menu items. The results indicate that different weather factors have different effects on different menu items and that the sales of some items are more affected by weather while others are not affected. These results can be used in the process of menu engineering and for the differential pricing of menu items according to the changes in weather factors.     

The geodemographics of restaurant development

A new set of research tools could transform the way food-service development is planned and managed.     

The influence of sport sponsorship on brand equity and purchase behavior

Abstract

Drawing on Aaker’s brand equity model and Keller’s brand engagement concept and building on the sponsorship between a professional basketball club and a software company, this study examined how sport sponsorship affects brand equity and purchase behavior of the sponsor’s product. Data from 222 survey respondents were collected and analyzed using structural equation modeling techniques. The results provided evidence that perceived quality and brand engagement impact brand loyalty and purchase behavior of fans toward the sponsor’s product. Perceived fit between sponsor and sponsee and team identification were found to influence significantly sponsor’s brand equity constructs. The study extends Aaker’s model in the sport sponsorship context and highlights the influential role of perceived quality and brand engagement on driving sport team fans to form brand loyalty and purchase sponsor’s product.     

The influence of sharing versus self-use on the preference for different types of promotional offers

Sharing, which refers to giving something you have to someone else, is one of the most ubiquitous forms of human behavior in the world. Everyone experiences it in various situations, including buying food. Nonetheless, although buying something to share with others is quite common in our daily lives, most consumer research on buying focuses on the condition of “self-use” rather than “sharing.” The main purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of promotional offers on consumers' purchase decisions when buying food for self-use/sharing with others. The authors conducted four experiments to answer the main research questions. The results indicated that consumers prefer “price discounts” over “bonus packs” when the shopping task relates to self-use due to their concern about “loss reduction.” In contrast, they prefer bonus packs over price discounts when the shopping task relates to sharing with others because of their focus on “extra gains.” In addition, consumers’ perceived responsibility is a moderator. When perceived responsibility is low and the purchase is for self-use (sharing with others), price discounts (bonus pack) are favored over bonus packs (price discounts). However, when perceived responsibility is high, consumer preference to promotional offers are not significant different either in self-use or sharing with others condition. It seems that role of responsibility is influential when the shopping task relates to self-use. This study not only contributes to a deeper understanding of consumer psychology but will also be beneficial to practitioners in designing effective promotional strategies that consider motives for food shopping.     

The influence of personal and organizational values on marketing professionals' ethical behavior

The authors examine empirically the influence of personal and organizational values on marketing professionals' ethical behavior. The results indicate that personal and organizational values underlie differences in marketing professionals' ethical behavior, albeit small terms of the proportion of explained variance. The results also suggest the relationship between organizational values and ethical behavior to be significant. However, the same is not the case for the relationship between personal values and ethical behavior.Ishmael P. Akaah is Professor of Marketing at Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, Professor Akaah's articles have appeared in many journals includingJournal of Marketing Research, International Marketing Review, Journal of Business Logistics, among others.Daulatram B. Lund is Associate professor of Marketing at University of Nevada, Reno. Professor Lund's articles have appeared inJournal of Retailing, Journal of Business Research, Industrial Marketing Management, among others.