Built environment diversities and activity–travel behaviour variations in Beijing, China

The association between built environment and travel behaviour has received considerable research attention in recent years. In an attempt to contribute to this growing literature, this paper investigates the connections between urban built environments and activity–travel patterns in Beijing, the capital city of China. We characterize the built environment in Beijing and establish associations between built environment and activity–travel behaviour in terms of car ownership, time spent for out-of-home activities, and daily trip frequencies and travel time. Activity diaries from 1119 respondents living in ten different neighbourhoods were collected by face-to-face interviews. A household-level structure equations model incorporating intra-household interactions is developed to analyse this data. The empirical results show that residents of different types of neighbourhoods in Beijing demonstrate significant differences in car ownership, time spent for out-of-home activities, trip rate, and travel time. Further, the characteristics of the built environment are found to have more significant impacts on the activity–travel behaviour of the male head than that of the female head.     

Demand for leisure air travel and limits to growth

This paper discusses methodologies for analysing the existence of limits to growth of leisure air travel and defines the concept of demand maturity. It considers the air market as one of a number of inter-related travel markets and applies these concepts to a UK case study. The paper concludes that the UK air international leisure travel market is only at the early stages of maturity; whilst the overall leisure travel market seems to be much nearer to full maturity. This means that if UK air travel is still to experience healthy growth rates, it must be at the expense of the growth of some other UK travel market.     

Elasticities of demand for leisure air travel: A system modelling approach

In this study, the UK outbound demand for leisure air travel has been examined using a demand system which takes into account the ways in which the expenditure on air fares interacts with both the expenditure on non-fare components of travel abroad and with expenditure on domestic leisure. The findings suggest that there is a strong link between total consumer expenditure and expenditure on air travel with the expenditure elasticity greater than one but that, considered in aggregate, the demand for air travel is moderately inelastic with respect to air fares alone. However, the findings also show that interactions between air travel expenditure, other costs of travel abroad, as well as expenditure on leisure activities in the UK, involve sizeable cross-price elasticities.     

The indirect effect of the built environment on travel mode choice: A focus on recent movers

Many studies have demonstrated that the built environment has a strong impact on people's travel mode choice. However, the built environment also influences elements such as travel distance and car ownership, which might be the true predictors of which travel modes are chosen. In this study, we analyse the effects of changes in residential neighbourhood on changes in travel mode (for commute trips and leisure trips), both directly and indirectly through changes in car ownership, travel distances and travel attitudes. This study applies a structural equation modelling approach using quasi-longitudinal data from 1650 recently relocated residents in the city of Ghent, Belgium. Results indicate that the built environment has strong direct effects on active leisure trips and car use. However, distance (for car use) and attitudes (for active travel) were found to be important mediating variables. In sum, the effect of the built environment on travel mode choice might be more complex than commonly assumed as it partly seems mediated by travel distance and travel attitudes.     

Operationalizing the neighborhood effects of the built environment on travel behavior

Evidence of a connection between the built environment and individual travel behavior is substantiated by multidisciplinary research. In general, compact development patterns exhibiting high concentrations of activity locations and a traditional street design support sustainable travel. However, uncertainty in the magnitude of this connection remains due to how the built environment has been operationalized, usually at a geographic boundary chosen out of convenience. This Portland, Oregon study uses household travel survey data to systematically examine variation in the magnitude of this association when measuring land development pattern, urban design, and transportation system features at various scales. Specifically, this study measures 57 built environment features describing an individual's trip origin and destination at 12 combinations of zonal systems and spatial extents, and assesses their effect on home-based mode choice. First, correlations between individual- and household-level walking behaviors and each combination of indicator and geographic boundary were measured to examine scaling and zoning effects associated with the modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP). These sensitivity test results informed the specification of home-based work and non-work multinomial logit models estimating the effect of sociodemographic, economic, and built environment features on mode choice. Our study findings offer new insight into the MAUP's scaling effect on measuring smart growth indicators and their connection to sustainable travel behavior.     

Catalysts and magnets: Built environment and bicycle commuting

What effects do bicycle infrastructure and the built environment have on people’s decisions to commute by bicycle? While many studies have considered this question, commonly employed methodologies fail to address the unique statistical challenge of modeling modes with small mode shares. Additionally, personal characteristics that are not adequately accounted for may lead to overestimation of built environment impacts.This study addresses these two key issues by using an ordered probit Heckman selection model to jointly estimate participation in and frequency of commuting by bicycle, controlling for demographics, residential preferences, and travel attitudes. The findings suggest a strong influence of attitudinal factors, with modest contributions of bicycle accessibility. Bicycle lanes act as “magnets” to attract bicyclists to a neighborhood, rather than being the “catalyst” that encourages non-bikers to shift modes. The results have implications for planners and policymakers attempting to increase bicycling mode share via the strategic infrastructure development.     

Influences of rural built environment on travel mode choice of rural residents: The case of rural Sichuan

China has entered a stage in which new rural construction and urbanization are rapidly developing. Considerable changes are occurring in rural China, and the built environment is different from that in the past; such difference directly influences the travel mode choice of rural residents. However, our knowledge on how the rural built environment influences the travel mode choice of rural residents in China remains limited. To fill this gap, this study combines on-site measurement methods, geographic information system (GIS) technology, and activity diary survey to obtain basic data regarding the built environment and the daily activities of rural residents. The multinomial logit (MNL) model is used to explore the relationship between the rural built environment and the travel mode choice of rural residents. Results show that building density significantly positively affects private car trips. This finding challenges earlier urban built environment research due to the considerable gap between rural and urban areas. An increase in road density increases the travel frequency of electric bicycles and motorcycles. Accessibility perception and preferences positively affect the probability of choosing to walk. Safety and neighborhood harmony perception positively affect the travel frequency of motorcycles and private cars. Rural residents who prefer a safe living environment are likely to choose walking for their daily travel. Despite the considerable achievements in the construction of rural roads, the frequency of public transportation remains low for rural residents. Therefore, additional attention should be given to the investment and construction of public transport facilities during rural urbanization.     

Built environment and potential job accessibility effects of road pricing: A spatial econometric perspective

This paper analyzes the impacts of the built environment (BE) as it relates to the potential job accessibility (PJA) effects of road pricing. The relationships between the BE elements and PJA under a road charging policy are established using a spatial econometric approach, which uses an integrated land use and transportation model (TRANUS model) and a spatial lag model (SLM). With the intent of further analyzing the differences in the PJA effects of road pricing on traffic analysis zones (TAZs) that contain different combinations of BE elements, a quantitative classification method combining factor and cluster analysis is applied. This will quantitatively categorize TAZs inside and outside the tolled areas. In exploring the relationship between changes in PJA and the road pricing policy, we found the spatial autocorrelation coefficient to be negative. This result suggests that we are unable to increase the PJA of all the regions through road pricing, but rather affect a redistribution of PJA between different regions. Results also indicate that the impacts of road charging on PJA are associated with urban BE elements. Moreover, such effects are the common result of specific characteristics of the BE. The higher the number of jobs, the better the public transportation conditions, and the better the street design (high densities of street and intersections), the less the region will be negatively influenced by a road charging policy, and vice versa. To avoid the negative effects of road pricing on PJA prior to the launch of such a policy, cities should improve public transportation networks and enhance the street design of the road pricing policy areas, especially the toll ring periphery area.     

The travel cost method and the economic value of leisure time

Recent estimates of high values for tourist related recreation USA amenity values indicate that allocation of basic water and terrestrial resources to recreation activities should be given precedence over conventional market oriented activities that often degrade or even extirpate the resource. We discuss at length the travel cost method (TCM), a survey based technique that quantifies the non‐market benefits of trips to recreation sites. The TCM has been cast in the role of an ‘umpire’ in recent resource allocation debates. Understanding the key role of the TCM in the debate will aid tourist agency officials throughout the world. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the U.S.A.     

Gendered key events in the life course: effects on changes in travel mode choice over time

This paper studies changes in travel mode specific trip rates after life course (and accessibility) related key events from a gender perspective. It is theoretically informed by the mobility biographies approach, and by gender/travel studies. The data used is the German Mobility Panel (GMP) 1994 to 2010 in which households and their members are asked three times in three subsequent years to report the trips they made over a week. The changes reported are regressed to key events over the life course, cohort effects and period effects, while sociodemographics and spatial context attributes are controlled. A cluster–robust regression approach is used to account for the non-independent character of panel observations. Significant effects were found for some key events, including the birth of a child, entry into the labour market, and changes in spatial context, accessibility and mobility. Some effects differed distinctly between men and women, suggesting that men and women are differently affected by life course events. However, taken together the associations found, as well as their gender differences are rather limited. Hence, key events over the life course seem to be only loosely associated with travel mode specific trip rates.     

The impact of airport fees on fares for the leisure air travel market: The case of Spain

Panel data is used to determine the incidence of airport fees on fares in the Spanish leisure market airlines. We also study its structure through an empirical specification of a pricing and demand equation system. The results show the existence of market power, strategic behavior and density economics. We also demonstrate that airlines pass all the airport fees onto customers by increasing fares. Furthermore, we find that the behavior of airlines in routes with the presence of low cost carriers do not differ from other routes.     

Assessing the effects of access policies on travel mode choices in an Alpine tourist destination

Alternative Transportation Systems (ATS) can contribute to an overall reduction of visitation-related impacts in natural areas if their design and management are informed by a clear understanding of the factors influencing visitors’ mode choice. This is particularly relevant in areas served by multiple alternative transportation options at different locations because mode choices in this case can largely modify visitation patterns. This study investigated mode choices in a popular hiking area of the Dolomites (Italian Alps) that is reachable by car, bus, and lifts (i.e. cable car and chairlift). A stated preference survey was used to elicit visitor sensitivities to a series of management and experiential conditions, while simulation was applied to predict mode choice as a consequence of various access policies. While indicating lift as the most preferred transportation option, results suggest the existence of two main kinds of visitor: one preferring road-accessible trailheads and another preferring lift-accessible trailheads. These two kinds seem to reflect a traditional view (i.e., very sensitive to fares, road closures, and overcrowding) and a more modern one (i.e., moderately sensitive to lift fares, relatively insensitive to crowding), respectively. Simulations performed for both groups led to four management principles: road traffic is not reduced significantly without disincentives for car use; overly cheap lift fares are counterproductive; fare-frequency trade-off is key to ensure adequate bus ridership within both groups; and road closures may be comprehensively more effective than road tolls. The findings of this study may support managers and administrators in setting up access policies that better preserve natural resources and visitors’ recreational experience.     

The influence of neighborhood environment and household travel interactions on school travel behavior: an exploration using geographically-weighted models

Professional and popular interest in active school transportation (walking and cycling) is matched by an emerging literature on this topic. This paper explores school travel behavior of 11-year old children in Toronto, Canada. In particular, the effects of the neighborhood environment and caregiver-child travel interactions on travel mode choice were studied. Results indicate that the built environment near both home and school locations was associated with the odds of walking. However, predicted built environment effects were less accurate in some neighborhoods. Availability of adults at the time of school travel likely encouraged driving. School transportation interventions that broadly consider school and neighborhood-oriented policies and enable independent mobility may increase walking rates. Presence of spatial autocorrelation in the prevalence of walking suggests that more research is required to understand inter-household similarities in behaviors that are spatially structured.     

Determinants of travel mode choice for seeking healthcare: A comparison between elderly and non-elderly patients

People's travel mode choices can vary significantly by age group due to different influencing factors, but relevant research on health-related travel is scarce. In this study, we explored and compared the determinants of travel mode choice for healthcare-seeking non-elderly and elderly patients in Beijing, China. A multinomial logit model was used to analyze data from a recent healthcare-seeking behavior survey. The results show that increased age discourages car use and slightly prompts non-motorized travel in the non-elderly, but has the opposite effect in the elderly group. Household income has a negative effect on non-motorized travel in the non-elderly, but a positive effect in elderly patients. Highly mixed land use, intensive urban development, and difficulty in parking discourage non-elderly patients from traveling by car, but none of these factors have a significant effect on the elderly. Our findings shed light on the unique transportation demands for different age cohorts and inform the creation of age-specific interventions to improve overall access to health.     

Happiness and travel mode switching: Findings from a Swiss public transportation experiment

We present results from a recent experiment conducted in Switzerland that studies the effects of a temporary change in the mode of travel to work on travel happiness and mode switching. The primary aim is to study the dynamics in travel satisfaction ratings obtained before and after the intervention. Two behavioral mechanisms driving the change in satisfaction ratings are analyzed. The first one is that satisfaction ratings are influenced by reference points. The second mechanism is that satisfaction ratings are affected by cognitive awareness, whereby the disruption of routine travel conditions makes people think more fully about their travel happiness with different modes of transportation.It is found that the measure of satisfaction with the commute by car obtained right after the temporary intervention is significantly different from the measure obtained before the intervention, and both behavioral hypotheses are supported by the pattern of change in satisfaction ratings. The policy and modeling relevance of different well-being measures obtained at different points in time is discussed.As to mode switching, none of the 30 participants switched completely to public transportation after the intervention but a number of them continued to commute occasionally by public transportation. The relationship between mode switching and satisfaction and the implications of this intervention for public transportation agencies and other organizations interested in behavioral modification are discussed.     

Exploring tertiary students' travel mode choices in Auckland: Insights and policy implications

It is crucial that policymakers and public transport operators comprehend tertiary students' travel mode choices and understand the factors that inform these choices in order to manage travel demands effectively and to optimise the use of public transport and improve its quality of service, particularly during the peak hours. This study aims to examine tertiary students' travel mode choices in Auckland, which is recognised as one of the most car-dependent cities in the world. The city is struggling with traffic congestion, particularly around its Central Business District (CBD) during peak hours. Auckland is New Zealand's largest city, with a population of 1.4 million residents. The main campuses of two major public universities, The University of Auckland (UoA) and Auckland University of Technology (AUT), are located in the CBD, attracting a large number of daily trips by both staff and students, particularly during the teaching semesters. However, there is a limited understanding of tertiary students' travel mode choices, particularly the factors that inform these choices when they travel to the universities' city campuses. A mixed methodology approach was used to comprehend the travel mode choices of students attending The University of Auckland and to identify the key factors that are drivers of these choices. The data collection included a questionnaire-based survey, which received 249 responses, and 10 semi-structured interviews with students. Thematic analysis was utilised to codify and then analyse the interviews. Despite the significant car dependency in Auckland, the survey demonstrated that most respondents utilised public transport and active modes when commuting to the university's city campus. Seven factors were identified that inform tertiary students' travel mode choices: cost, parking availability and cost, access to a car, travel time, physical environment, reliability, and attitudinal variables. The interviewees mostly argued that travel cost and lack of or limited access to a private car were the primary drivers of their travel mode choices. The study suggests that different stakeholders, such as Auckland Transport (AT) and The University of Auckland, should work collaboratively to provide an inclusive travel demand management policy. The university could rearrange classes for off-peak hours, and AT could offer tertiary students further discounts during these hours. These actions would result in the optimisation of public transport efficiency, improvement of the quality of the public transport service, and mitigation of traffic congestion around Auckland's Central Business District (CBD).     

The effects of travel activities and seasons on expenditure

The primary objective of this research was to improve the understanding of the relationships among travel activities, seasons and expenditure after controlling for income. Path analysis was used to test all hypothesised causal relationships. In addition to its conceptual contributions, the findings of the study revealed how international travellers spend during travel in response to changes in activity preferences and season of travel. To maximise travellers' expenditure and to generate greater tourism revenues, destination policy‐makers and marketers need to identify what types of activities and which season contribute most to their destination. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Economic geography and transportation conditions with endogenous time distribution amongst work, travel, and leisure

This study examines possible effects of transportation conditions upon economic growth and geography. The paper proposes a model of economic growth with travel time and cost, housing, residential distribution, amenity, and endogenous time distribution amongst work, travel, and leisure. It deals with a dynamic interaction among capital accumulation, land use, housing market, environmental change, and transportation conditions in a linear economy. Although transportation systems are simple in this paper in the light of contemporary literature in transportation research, the paper demonstrates a way to integrating some important models in the literature in transportation research, economic growth theory and urban economics so that the significance of transportation systems upon economies can be properly analyzed.