Modelling the impact of alternative fare structures on train overcrowding

The Strategic Rail Authority (SRA) provides the backbone to rail regulation in Great Britain. As part of its responsibilities, the SRA monitors overcrowding on trains which it measures in terms of the proportion of passengers on trains in excess of the seat capacity for longer distance services, and with an allowance for standing passengers on shorter journeys of less than 20 min. Overcrowding on Britain's railways fell during the early 1990s but has been on the increase since 1996 with particularly acute problems in the morning peak for services travelling to London. In a study conducted on behalf of the SRA we developed the PRAISE rail operations model to include penalties for overcrowding based upon journey purpose, journey time and degree of overcrowding. Using demand, fares and timetable information for an actual case study route, we examine how fares and ticketing restrictions can be set to manage demand throughout the day without significantly reducing the overall demand for rail travel.     

Evaluating the potential impact of alternative airport pricing approaches on social welfare

Existing approaches to the economic regulation of airports are currently under (or just completed) review in the UK and New Zealand. One of the most critical issues facing policy-makers is whether it is preferable to adopt a single-till or dual-till approach. This paper aims to analyse the potential loss of social welfare as a result of adopting a single/dual-till approach in three airport pricing scenarios. The results show that the dual-till approach is desirable when aeronautical capacity is fully utilised or already over-utilised, while the single-till approach is preferable where excess capacity exists.     

Modelling new pricing strategies for the Santiago Metro

After twenty years of operation the Santiago Metro decided to start a new strategy of price differences by period in order to decrease congestion in the morning peak and to postpone the acquisition of new equipment. In this paper we report the results of a model specifically designed to test the impact of different price levels on patronage by period. Stated preference (SP) data was collected, focusing on three aspects: change in time of travel, price differences and comfort improvements. A goods-leisure microeconomics framework was adopted to decide on users segmentation and model specification. Two methodological aspects were explored, the non-linear marginal valuation of time displacements and the different known ways to analyse SP rating experiments. In this quest, models were calibrated both with a standard and an optimal probabilistic interpretation of the semantic scale and with the ordinal probit and binary logit models. Comparisons were made and conclusions reached about the more appropriate approach.Finally, the current time-of-day pricing strategy of the Santiago Metro, which commenced operation in February 1994, was simulated using the best models reported in the paper. This was done in order to test their validity against an observed reality.     

Modelling and evaluation of road pricing in Paris

This article describes the impacts of road pricing in Ile-de-France, a region that includes Paris. The morning peak is studied using METROPOLIS: a dynamic network simulator that treats endogenously travellers' mode, departure time and route-choice decisions. Time-independent tolls on selected links, time-varying cordon tolls, and a network-wide toll proportional to travel time are considered. Welfare gains from the link and cordon tolls are relatively small. The comprehensive travel-time-based toll yields much higher benefits. In all cases, benefits to users amount to a large fraction of toll revenues and exceed the monetised value of reductions in noise, accidents and vehicle emissions.     

Optimisation models for the urban parking pricing problem

Parking pricing strategies are important tools for rebalancing the modal split between private car and transit systems in urban areas. Indeed, high congestion levels are mainly due to users' preference for the private car system. In order to obtain a more balanced modal split it is possible, together with an improvement in transit system quality, to set fees on the use of private cars through road pricing and/or parking pricing strategies. Parking pricing strategies are simpler, since they can be managed without adopting advanced technologies. In this paper some parking pricing strategies are proposed and some optimisation models are formalised.     

Policy insights from the urban road pricing case studies

This article reviews and compares the results of four modelling case studies of urban road pricing implementation that were carried out for the MC-ICAM project. The studies all concern large cities in Western Europe (Paris, Brussels, Oslo and Helsinki) and they all examine phased implementation paths in which constraints on the set of policy instruments are progressively relaxed. However, the studies used different models that vary with respect to the endogenous dimensions of traveller behaviour, the level of detail in which road and public transit networks are represented, and assumptions about what policy instruments are available and what constraints apply.     

Optimizing EV-based P&R subsidy policies for commuting corridor based on cross-nested logit model

The promotion of electric vehicles (EVs) is restricted by cruising range limitation and charging station deficiency. Given the mature development of Park and Ride (P&R) mode, which is used in many cities worldwide to attract more travelers to use public transit, a new travel mode, i.e., EV-based P&R is introduced as an alternative for commuters’ daily travel. This seems quite attractive to expand the use of EVs and further increase their market share. This paper aims to investigate the impact of EV-based P&R introduction on travel mode choice along commuting corridor, and further aid in the optimal subsidy policies decision for the government. A bi-level model is proposed to model the presented problem. The lower level describes commuters’ joint mode and transfer choice behavior through a cross-nested logit (CNL) model, while the upper level minimizes the system cost. A genetic algorithm is developed to solve the formulated model with a partial linearization algorithm for solving the lower level model. And a numerical example is then used to demonstrate the effectiveness of the methodology and illustrate how the network flow pattern reshapes due to the introduction of EVs into the P&R mode and the change of corresponding subsidy policies. As the results show, improving the EV hardware, applying the intelligent supporting service system, developing new technologies for EV fast charging, appropriately improving the parking space capacity, and increasing the parking fee of transfer stations near the central business district (CBD) are all helpful to save the social cost and promote the usage of EVs.     

The multi-class, multi-criterion traffic equilibrium and the efficiency of congestion pricing

We consider the effect of the so-called second-best tolls on the price of anarchy of the traffic equilibrium problem where there are multiple classes of users with a discrete set of values of time. We derive several bounds of the price of anarchy for this problem when the tolls are considered and not considered as part of the system cost, with the time-based criterion and the cost-based criterion, respectively. All the bounds give us useful information on the effect of the tolls, which can be used to design network toll schemes.     

The impact of the current economic crisis on the geography of air traffic volumes: an empirical analysis

This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of air services dynamics during the recent economic crisis. Through a regression analysis, we show that at the country scale, the change in the supply of seats is highly dependent on economic growth, confirming the cyclical nature of the air sector. Hence the crisis of air services has much more affected the USA, Europe and Japan than the rest of the world. However, many countries deviate from this general trend. In a second step, using the existing literature, we explain some of these deviating figures. National specificities and airline strategies seem to influence the intensity of the crisis. We argue that the intensity of the crisis in the US is due to the structural oversupply of the air sector. Through other cases, especially the Middle East, we show that hubbing strategies might reduce the impact of the crisis, or at least make it less dependent upon local economic dynamics. In contrast with other authors, we found no positive impact of the share of low-cost carriers on the supply during the crisis, despite their success in some specific contexts like between Europe and Morocco.     

Support for innovative on-street parking policies: empirical evidence from an urban neighborhood

Municipalities and planners often hesitate to implement restrictive parking policies because residents regularly oppose any changes to on-street parking space. Residential parking is one key factor of parking management because its location and availability influence a household's car ownership and use. Moreover, as more residents regularly use other means of transportation that need space and infrastructure in the urban realm, and as parking takes up a vast amount of land, municipalities are considering the reuse of on-street parking space for other purposes. As public acceptability is a precondition for the successful implementation of a proposed policy, our empirical analysis investigates to what extent residents support restrictive and demand-oriented on-street parking policies in the dense, highly urbanized neighborhood of Frankfurt-Bornheim, Germany (N = 1027). Surprisingly, despite some variations, the majority of the residents in our survey are in favor of the policy options suggested. Support for the demand-oriented policies (extension of bicycle infrastructure, improved sharing supply and mobility hubs, neighborhood garages, and improved public transit supply) is higher than the acceptance of the restrictive policies, and of policies that are a combination of restrictive and demand-oriented policies. However, surprisingly, a majority is still in favor of many of these (extension of parking fees and parking restrictions, and reuse of parking space for better livability). Furthermore, we classify residents who live in a household with private cars into the stage model of self-regulated behavior change to analyze their intention towards a reduction in private car use. Results from linear regression analyses indicate that residents who have intentions to change their behavior towards car use reduction assess the policy options more similarly to car-free households and regular bike users, and not like the other car-owning households. The findings suggest that while the residents support financial-related policies the least, they are more receptive towards parking policies than policy makers and planners assume if the reuse of parking lots creates space for other users or if it increases the quality of life, for instance, by adding bike lanes, wider sidewalks or greenery. Hence, a combination of restrictive and demand-oriented on-street parking policies results in high acceptance among residents, and the communication from municipalities regarding the implementation of the different policies needs to vary depending on the kind of household.     

Key research themes on regulation,pricing, and sustainable urban mobility

ABSTRACT

This article considers both theoretical arguments and practical experience regarding a range of urban pricing and regulation policies, namely road pricing, public transport pricing and regulation, car parking policies, home and low-emissions zones, and regulation and subsidies to bring about cleaner vehicles. It concludes that effective urban transport policies require a consistently structured package of measures, and that the most urgent research needs surround the design of such measures to achieve their objectives while being financially sustainable and attracting public and political support.     

The impact of government policies on destination competitiveness in developing economies

The role government plays in destination competitiveness is reflected in a country’s institutional environment. The main premise of this study is to provide a better understanding about the appropriate levels of government involvement in destination competitiveness. Seven countries of the Central American region were analysed over 18 years. The results indicate that not all government decisions impact destination competitiveness in the same way, as some may have more influence than others. For example, an increase in the level of corruption revealed a positive impact on destination competitiveness while lowering taxes did not encourage an increase in destination competitiveness. This study contributes to the academic literature not only from theory building but also practical implication on the role of government.     

Exploring the impact of public transport strikes on travel behavior and traffic congestion

Public transport (PT) disruption can occur due to various factors such as malfunctions and breakdowns of vehicles, power outages, and personnel strikes. This paper explores the network-wide impacts of PT strikes (train, tram, and bus strikes) on traffic congestion in Melbourne, Australia using a network modeling approach. A primary survey aimed to investigate the mode shift of users when each public transport mode ceases was conducted with 648 public transport users in May 2016. Findings show that train withdrawal was expected to result in 43% of users shifting to car. Smaller yet significant shifts to car was also expected with bus withdrawal (34%) and tram withdrawal (17%). Based on the survey results and the use of a four-step transport model, train withdrawal was expected to increase the number of severely congested road links by 130% and reduce the average travel speed from 48 km/h to 39 km/h (20% decrease). Bus and tram withdrawal was also found to increase congestion although the result was less severe. Future research should investigate the switching behavior in actual withdrawal events and explore the long-term effects of public transport withdrawal.     

User perception of transfers in multimodal urban trips: A qualitative study

The aim of this article is to identify the factors affecting user perception of transfers in order to reduce the penalty associated with transfers. Policy makers can thus concentrate on the most relevant factors to achieve a more effective investment of public funds. We carried out an extensive review of the literature and identified a total of 45 factors. A qualitative study was then conducted in two Spanish cities, Vitoria and Madrid, consisting of various focus groups stratified by age. The results indicate that a combination of factors influence the perception of transfers. Time spent during transfers, both walking and waiting, is the main penalty associated with transfers. However, the provision of real-time passenger information helps reduce the perceived waiting time. Differences were found between cities and age groups. Two new factors were identified, mainly in Madrid: mental effort and activity disruption. We, therefore, advise policy makers to concentrate their efforts on providing real-time information to passengers, improving the frequency and reliability of services, and designing transfer areas to ensure continuity between transport modes and between information and communication systems.     

Pay-as-you-weigh pricing of an air ticket

This paper discusses the pay-as-you-weigh approach to airline charging, which adopts passenger’s weight as a major determinant of a fare. It specifically investigates the economic justification of the model, discusses strengths and weaknesses, evaluates various comments, and points out some potential options for implementation. The model rewards passengers who weigh less than average and/or when they reduce weight, providing financial savings and improved health benefits.     

An investigation of the performance of urban rail transit systems on the corridor level: A comparative analysis in the American west

Since the 1980s, significant investments have been made in urban rail transit across the United States, particularly using light rail technology. Most of these light rail systems have been built in Sunbelt cities which no longer had legacy rail systems. As a result, they were constructed using a building blocks approach, being funded corridor by corridor. Most research, however, on urban rail performance has taken place at the system-wide level, leaving a significant gap at the level of the transit corridor. This research examined nineteen urban rail corridors in Denver, Salt Lake City, and Portland. A performance score was constructed for each corridor based upon ridership per mile, ridership growth, capital costs, and the cost of ongoing operations. These scores were then compared with the geographic profile of each corridor studied. Corridors in each city ranked high and low, with no city emerging as a clear frontrunner. More centrally-located corridors in each city registered the highest performance scores, while longer corridors in more peripheral locations had lower performance scores. Headways, population density, job density, walkability, and percentage renter occupied housing units were found to have a statistically significant relationship with high corridor performance, largely in line with previous studies, though median income, bus connections, and park and ride spaces were not found to increase performance in this study.     

Exploring the spatial impacts of human activities on urban traffic crashes using multi-source big data

Traffic crashes are geographical events, and their spatial patterns are strongly linked to the regional characteristics of road network, sociodemography, and human activities. Different human activities may have different impacts on traffic exposures, traffic conflicts and speeds in different transportation geographic areas, and accordingly generate different traffic safety outcomes. Most previous researches have concentrated on exploring the impacts of various road network attributes and sociodemographic characteristics on crash occurrence. However, the spatial impacts of human activities on traffic crashes are unclear. To fill this gap, this study attempts to investigate how human activities contribute to the spatial pattern of the traffic crashes in urban areas by leveraging multi-source big data. Three kinds of big data sources are used to collect human activities from the New York City. Then, all the collected data are aggregated into regional level (ZIP Code Tabulation Areas). Geographically Weighted Poisson Regression (GWPR) method is applied to identify the relationship between various influencing factors and regional crash frequency. The results reveal that human activity variables from multi-source big data significantly affect the spatial pattern of traffic crashes, which may bring new insights for roadway safety analyses. Comparative analyses are further performed for comparing the GWPR models which consider human activity variables from different big data sources. The results of comparative analyses suggest that multiple big data sources could complement with each other in the coverage of spatial areas and user groups, thereby improving the performance of zone-level crash models and fully unveiling the spatial impacts of human activities on traffic crashes in urban areas. The results of this study could help transportation authorities better identify high-risky regions and develop proactive countermeasures to effectively reduce crashes in these regions.     

Re-evaluating the impact of urban form on travel patternsin Europe and North-America

The work by Newman, Kenworthy and colleagues on the link between land use, transportation systems and travel patterns and energy use has been received enthusiastically but also criticised strongly. In this paper concerns are expressed about the role accorded to individual travellers and the wider space-time context of cities in the empirical-analytical work by Kenworthy and colleagues. To investigate the seriousness of these concerns, the data collected by Kenworthy and colleagues for European, Canadian and US cities in 1990 have been augmented with information on housing, urban development history and the sociodemographic situation. Regression models are described in which the role of urban form is investigated while account is taken of other relevant factors. The empirical analysis suggests that the space-time context of cities should be taken into account in aggregate-level comparisons of the relations between urban form and transport. Policy recommendations based on the original data may be reconsidered and tailored to the space-time context and population characteristics of cities.     

发展城际铁路对交通产业结构优化影响的探讨

在总结城际高速铁路特点的基础上,提出影响交通产业结构优化的因素。结合实例,分析现阶段发展城际高速铁路对交通产业结构优化的影响,提出城际铁路的发展建议。     

Airport pricing systems in europe and an application of Ramsey pricing to Spanish airports

This paper describes the landing fee structures which are prevalent at most European airports: a mix of weight-based landing fees, passenger fees, and other charges. The paper describes alternative pricing systems which emphasize economic efficiency rather than airport finance considerations. Finally the paper calculates the structure of landing fees for a hypothetical uncongested airport using a Ramsey pricing formulation with data representative of uncongested Spanish airports. Further research is necessary before recommending implementation because the elasticities of demand and operating costs with distance are borrowed from North American studies.