When will larger‐sized female models in advertisements be viewed positively? The moderating effects of instructional frame,gender, and need for cognition

A variety of negative consequences for girls and women have been associated with women's and men's viewing unrealistic portrayals of women in advertising. However, research on the positive consequences of presenting larger‐sized women in advertisements, and the conditions under which they are effective, has been lacking. The present research examined such positive effects and found that larger‐sized female models in ads were rated as more attractive when an instructional frame activated nontraditional beliefs (a new women's magazine that features larger‐sized models) than when it activated traditional beliefs (a traditional women's magazine). These effects were more pronounced for women than for men, and particularly for women who scored higher in their need for cognition. The degree to which women generated positive thoughts about themselves in response to the ads tended to correspond with their ratings of increased attractiveness of the models in the ads. Implications of findings for using positive larger‐sized female models in ads are discussed. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Vogue in Britain: Authenticity and the creation of competitive advantage in the UK magazine industry

By 1914 the leading British magazine publishers had successfully launched a range of popular weekly titles for female readers which focused on everyday women's fashions. In contrast, the British operations of American publishers Hearst and Condé Nast sought to develop high-quality magazines designed to attract affluent consumers – and the advertisers who sought to reach these readers. This paper argues that the success of Condé Nast's Vogue depended on two main factors: gaining authenticity in the world of high fashion and forming close relations with their customers – both readers and advertisers – using market research and promotion techniques transferred from the United States.     

Romanticism,Introspection and Consumption: A Response to Professor Holbrook

This paper is concerned to challenge representational discourses which profess to identify the existence of a distinct and objectively identifiable “women's market” for financial services. Aided by an array of postmodern deconstructive techniques this paper reveals the discourse of a “women's market” as productive of, as well as constituted by, a particular form of modern society, one dominated by mass consumption to individualised subjects desperate for a sense of collective meaning and identity both as distinctive and embedded in a recognisable culture.     

Do women-owned businesses have equal access to angel capital?

Women-owned businesses are the fastest growing sector of new venture ownership in the United States. Although women's access to, and use of, debt and venture capital financing have been explored, comparatively little is known about women's access to capital from private equity investors. In this paper, we examine the equality of women's access to angel capital. The research suggests that women seek angel financing at rates substantially lower than that of men, but have an equal probability of receiving investment. We also document that women are more likely to seek, and to a lesser extent receive, financing from women angels.     

Female consumers as agents of change for transforming the environmental sustainability landscape

Faith in others (FIO; governments and businesses) can be seen as society's predisposition to handle environmental problems. The article examines whether women, who undertake a large majority of household purchases, can influence change in consumption practices so as to contribute to sustainability initiatives. Understanding women's character in this manner is informative, it helps us to consider how a women's role as a household purchasing agent is an important nexus to environmental sustainability. The study found that FIO has an influence on women's purchasing decisions. The study provides additional support to strengthen women's role in environmental matters. Not all women were found to be sustainability‐minded. In the challenges faced by women with respect to their influence, evidence from this research suggests that if women have more faith in governments and businesses it would make them more eco‐savvy to act as agents of change for transforming the environmental sustainability landscape.     

The Role of Commodified Celebrities in Children’s Moral Development: The Case of David Beckham

This paper presents an existentialist interpretation of the identity constituting meanings that middle‐class men and women ascribe to their bodies and their related motivations to engage in consumption activities that seek to transform their embodied selves. We begin by describing the relevance of the existential conceptualization of the embodied self to the postmodern condition of consumer culture. We apply this existential perspective to discern three dialectically structured themes drawn from phenomenological interviews with men and women across a broad age range. One emergent and unexpected finding is the extent to which these men and women expressed a constellation of common body image anxieties, thematic meanings, and self‐critical, objectifying interpretations of their bodies. Based on these findings and historical considerations, we propose that men's embodied selves are, like women's, fully inscribed in the patriarchal discourses that circulate throughout postmodern consumer culture. However, men occupy a distinct social space and, accordingly, we argue that their embodied selves are uniquely situated in a cultural model of hegemonic masculinity. We conclude that the postmodern ideal of the plastic, transformable body has become a resonant cultural metaphor through which middle‐class consumers enact their identity projects of creating a desired embodied self.     

Social entrepreneurship and intersectionality: Mitigating extreme exclusion

As social enterprises seek to share knowledge, they must navigate social hierarchy. In this study, we examine social enterprises' efforts to share knowledge in rural areas and how they seek to mitigate some of the consequences of women's marginalization during this process. We use a two-step, multi-method approach. We begin with a quantitative study that explores outcomes for women, and how caste and patriarchy influence their ability to adopt new practices introduced by social enterprises. We then draw on data from a seven-year qualitative case study to unpack our quantitative findings and explore the actual mechanisms through which intersectionality shapes the social enterprises' efforts. Our qualitative efforts also uncover how social enterprises' practices, as well as women's activities, can mitigate some of the negative consequences of marginalization, even while the social setting is largely unchanged. We seek to contribute to theory by exploring how social enterprises can potentially mitigate some of the negative consequences of exclusion due to intersectionality.     

Women's Responses to Sex in Advertising

Abstract

Advertising researchers have neglected to analyze women's reactions to sexual appeals, and researchers are just beginning to recognize the utility of personality variables as predictors of responses to sex in advertising. This study addresses both areas by testing women's reactions to a sexual commercial, and examining the relationship between women's sexual schemas with their responses. Sexual schemas are people's cognitive views of themselves that predict approach/avoidance to sexual behavior and sexual information. Overall, women who have more positive sexual self-schemas (sex positive) were found to have more positive attitudes-toward-the-ad and brand interest for the sexual ad. Purchase intention, however, was not affected. The findings and their implications are discussed.     

Meanings of the home in popular song lyrics: A feminist critique examining rock and country music

The paper examines the meanings of home as portrayed in the lyrics of popular country and rock songs. These two genres were selected because they loosely represent two American subcultural traditions. The home was chosen because of the central role that it plays in most people's lives and because it is commonly mentioned in the lyrics of popular songs. Because the main role of women in American society is integrally associated with their position and activities in the home, it is hard to separate the two. The authors use an interpretive approach and a feminist perspective to analyze the treatment of women's roles in the home in popular music lyrics. They conclude that, while some representations of women are being questioned by both the performers and the lyric writers, the popular music industry, with its many gatekeepers, continues to promote predominantly stereotypical and traditional images of women.     

Gender portrayals revisited: searching for explicit and implicit stereotypes in Cypriot magazine advertisements

The study pursues a line of inquiry into contemporary gender stereotypes drawn from print advertisements in Cyprus. The investigation of implicit modes of stereotyping suggested by Goffman across explicit gender roles yield novel and interesting insights that broaden existing knowledge on male and female advertising depictions. Through a content analysis of 3.729 characters, the study reveals the existence of gender clichés in Cypriot magazine advertisements. Neither male nor female evolving roles are adequately reflected in advertisements, as men tend to be portrayed in traditional masculine stereotypes while women lean towards decorative portrayals. Implicit stereotyping is more likely to suggest the subordination and lower status of women compared to men. The study indicates that advertising in Cyprus reinforces the diffusion of hostile sexism by the underrepresentation of professional women and their commonplace portrayal in body revealing attires. At the same time, the high proportion of women's implicit subordination signifies benevolent sexism. The distorted representation of both genders raises key public policy concerns, as diminishing portrayals hold sway upon men's and women's psychological well-being and professional development.     

Can a print publication be equally effective online? Testing the effect of medium type on marketing communications

Faced with budgetary pressures, many marketing communication managers are canceling the print distribution of their flagship magazine in favor of an online version. However, if the online publication is less effective in achieving the organization's goals, this move may be ill advised. In a field experiment, subscribers of a promotional magazine received either a print version of the magazine or an e-mail invitation that linked to the online version. The print version had a higher open rate than did the online version. In addition, print readers had higher recall memory and engaged in more browsing. Ironically, although younger readers indicated a preference for receiving an online version, the effect of medium on memory performance was strongest among the younger readers. Therefore, ceasing a print publication in favor of an online-only publication might hurt the effectiveness of an organization's marketing communications, and managers should not make the decision based on cost alone.     

Netnography as a consumer education research tool

‘Netnography’ is a research methodology in use since the late 1990s in the fields of consumer behaviour and marketing, but not fully utilized by researchers in the field of consumer education. This article argues that netnography is a helpful research tool for consumer education researchers who are interested in capturing and critically examining the education and learning occurring in informal sites of consumer education, especially in online communities. This article also presents an example of recent research conducted using netnography to understand how readers of the informal consumer education lifestyle magazine Budget Living created their own interpretations of meaning from the magazine.     

Magazine Readership Patterns

A nationwide life style survey served as the basis for exploring women's magazine exposure behavior. Seven magazine exposure patterns were identified using factor analysis and interpreted on the basis of the common content of the magazines representing each pattern. Comparison of the findings of this study with prior studies suggested that media patterns are relatively stable over time.     

“The Unbearable Lightness of Cleaning”: Representations of Domestic Practice and Products in Good Housekeeping Magazine (UK): 1951–2001

In this paper we begin to open the black box that constitutes the organisation of domestic cleaning and consumption in the latter half of the twentieth century. We focus specifically on change and continuity in the manner in which cleaning practices and cleaning products are represented in the UK woman's magazine Good Housekeeping, in the late modern period. After a discussion of the modern history of cleanliness, we proceed with a rationale for why this magazine was chosen for our analysis, followed by a summary of our methodology. We then argue that three phases of representation may be delineated in the time period we investigated. The first phase, which is apparent in the 1951 and 1961 issues, we have named “pride in domestic practice” and it covers a period when, what we call “the women's lobby”, speaks in a uniform voice about the tasks of the housewife and the purpose of domestic cleaning. The second phase, manifest in the 1971 and 1981 issues, is termed “domestic dreaming”, and it heralds a period when Good Housekeeping calls its readership to dream about the potentials of a transformed consumer culture. The third phase, which is evident in some respects in 1981, but which is more clearly present in 1991 and 2001, we have called “modern advising in a late modern world”. During this period, Good Housekeeping settles into a new role as a modern advisor of cleaning products and practices within the context of a world that poses significant complexities. Our discussion also focuses on how three values of cleanliness; that associated with germs, aesthetics and efficiency/ease are present in the magazine. Our analysis is contextualised in relation to the cultural silencing of cleanliness in this period and related to social and cultural changes associated with feminism and consumer culture.     

Celebrity Endorsements

Abstract

Advertising professionals rely on the assumption that using a celebrity to endorse a brand will result in an increase in consumer recall of the brand. Advertisers believe that using a celebrity endorser will foster, in the mind of the consumer, a match or connection between the celebrity endorser and the endorsed brand. The results presented in this study, however, found that a celebrity recognized in a magazine advertisement did not increase consumer recall of the brand endorsed by the celebrity for both professional athlete celebrities and other entertainment celebrities who are not professional athletes. Furthermore, subjects in this study did not correctly identify the brand when previously exposed to the full magazine advertisement, even when the celebrity's face cued the subject for recall. The results of this study raise questions relative to using celebrity endorsements to enhance brand recall.     

Women in Management in Thailand: Advancement and Prospects

Thailand has experienced rapid economic growth over the past two decades. Economic expansion has contributed to an increase in demand for managers and professionals. Changes in legislation to promote gender equality in employment and educational opportunities for women have been implemented. These changes have contributed to Thai women's improved status. The aim of the paper is to assess this progress of women in management in Thailand. There is some evidence suggesting that social class, in addition to education, may play an important role in explaining Thai women's advancement to managerial positions. The contribution examines the changes in legislation and the influence of cultural values, education, and gender on women's access to managerial positions. It identifies the barriers to women's progress and pays attention to social class as another key determinant of women's advancement in management.     

Consuming digital technologies and making home

Recognizing digital technology's dislocating impact on home, this paper focuses on an underrepresented consumer, the female head-of-household. This interpretive research study of army men's wives elucidates three issues: the digital home's structure, technology's roles, and women's technology consumption. First, the study introduces the center–periphery model of home. Second, the results go beyond technology's tool role to building a support system. Finally, this study sheds light on the neglected area of women's play with digital technology.     

Life-time income of men and women — the case in Denmark

Life-time income is estimated here including the money value of household work. A modified opportunity principle is used, which means that non-employed women's price of time is found by calculating reservation wage rates. The overall results demonstrate that Danish women's ‘loss' of labour income during the child caring period is difficult for them to regain, and just to reach the same level of income as childless Danish women seems impossible; furthermore Danish men get a higher life-time income than Danish women even when we add the money value of household work.     

Caring for her: the influence of presumed influence on female consumers’ attitudes towards advertising featuring gender-stereotyped portrayals

ABSTRACT

This study investigates how presumed influence on others affects women's evaluations of advertising featuring gender stereotypes. Previous research has largely overlooked the social context of the reactions to gender stereotypes. Addressing that gap, this study draws on the influence of presumed influence model to proposed that female consumers believe that other women are negatively affected by advertising that contains gender-stereotyped portrayals. This perception is hypothesized to influence ad and brand attitudes as consumers ‘punish’ the brand for hurting others. The results of two experimental studies featuring stereotyped and non-stereotyped advertising portrayals indicate that the hypothesis holds for two types of stereotype components (physical characteristics and role behaviour). This new theoretical perspective to the literature on gender stereotypes in advertising, one that helps to explain why many women dislike gender stereotypes in advertising even though those stereotypes often have limited impact on them personally.     

Family Size Underpins Grocery Shoppers' Behavioural Response to Stock-Outs

Abstract

Grocery shoppers were questioned about their response to the stock-out of their preferred item of milk and milk products. This measure was used as the dependent variable in a multinomial logit model with the independent variables being shopper dispositions, the contextual shopping situations, age, and household size. This study identified distinctive customer orientations that foreshadowed shoppers' buying a brand variant, buying another brand, and forgoing or postponing their purchase. A binary logit model then estimated the shoppers'orientations that motivated them to seek their preferred item from another store. It emerged that for most shoppers, their household size appeared to be a pressing variable that influenced the way they tackled the non-availability of their normal choice. Marketing literature postulates that large families invariably gravitate to larger pack sizes. Previous research also observes that brand loyalty is negatively correlated to household size. If their regular choice is not available, shoppers could, therefore, easily be driven to seek alternative brands. This study has identified that it would be useful for brand variants to offer shoppers sufficient consumption time till the products' use-by dates to encourage their purchase and prevent shoppers from crossing over to another brand or store. Central to the ample availability of consumption time is the capacity of channel members to support frequent deliveries of larger pack sizes in small lot quantities to the retail store.