A note on the role of cause type in cause-related marketing

This note examines an unexplored area of cause-related marketing: the influence of the cause category on consumer perceptions. The experiment shows that the four cause categories which represent the domain of charitable causes can have a differential effect on attitudes and purchase intention. The health cause category and human services cause category have a greater effect on attitude toward the cause than the animal or environmental cause categories when brand familiarity and cause importance were high. Only the human services category has a greater effect on attitude toward the alliance when brand familiarity and cause importance were high as well as when both were low. For attitude toward the brand and purchase intentions, there were no differences among the cause categories.     

The efficacy of cause-related marketing within a social network: The effects of congruency,corporate credibility,familiarity of cause brands,and perceived altruistic motive

This study investigates the value of cause-related marketing (CRM) effects by constructing a theoretical model within a social network site. This study aims to evaluate the effects of congruence, brand credibility, and cause brand familiarity within consumer sentiment with regard to a brand collaborating with a cause. A 2?×?2?×?2 factorial experiment design was implemented to investigate the significance of the relationship between consumer attitudes toward a brand, perceived motives, and intention to spread the campaign. The study proposed a two-stage moderated mediation model. The study generated significant results from three-way interactions among the key variables on attitude toward a brand. For participants who were exposed to familiar cause brands, there existed an interaction between congruence and credibility, such that in conditions of high credibility, congruence led to a significantly higher attitude toward the brand than incongruence. However, in conditions of low credibility, attitude toward the brand was very similar for congruent brands and incongruent brands. In addition, the results showed that the effect of attitude toward a brand on behavioral intention was moderated by perceived altruistic motive. This study presents interesting implications for future CRM campaigns.     

It is not about what you read,but how you read it: the effects of sequencing rational and emotional messages on corporate and product brand attitudes

The study aims to examine the effects of message sequencing on attitudinal responses, namely on the effects of rational to emotional and emotional to rational message sequences on consumer attitudes toward the corporate and product brand. A between-subjects experiment was conducted using a stratified random sample. Participants were exposed to advertisements that communicate marketing messages either in a rational to emotional sequence or in an emotional to rational sequence for a product advertised by an organization. All attitudinal responses to the corporate and product brand were collected through a questionnaire that was given at the end of the experiment. The findings suggest advertisements that communicate marketing messages in an emotional to rational sequence produced more favorable attitudes toward the product brand among consumers as compared to advertisements that communicate in a rational to emotional sequence. However, no significant differences were found on consumer attitudes toward the corporate brand. These results remain true regardless of gender.     

How Attitudes Toward Product Categories Drive Individual Brand Attitudes and Choice

Three experiments examine the role of attitudes toward the category to which a brand belongs in consumers’ attitudes toward individual brands. The core findings indicate that what consumers think generally about a category affects their evaluations of singular brands belonging to the category. Study 1 demonstrates that both consumers’ attitudes toward a category as well as their relative attitudes toward a brand versus intracategory competitors drive overall attitudes toward individual brands. Study 2 shows that manipulating attitudes toward a product category affects attitudes toward, and purchase intention of, individual brands belonging to that category. Study 3 demonstrates that more versus less favorably evaluated categories are more likely to exhibit brand positivity effects in judgments of singular brands. The results suggest the practical importance of measuring attitudes toward product categories, as well as the utility of marketing interventions aimed at the category level.     

Antecedents and outcomes of digital influencer endorsement: An exploratory study

The advertising and marketing literature have established that celebrity endorsements constitute an effective way to enhance attitudes toward brands and increase purchase intents. However, there are no relevant studies on digital influencers. This study addresses the research gap by examining the effect of digital influencers' attractiveness and the effect of the congruence between a digital influencer and a brand on consumer attitudes and purchase intentions. By applying structural equation modeling to a sample of 307 followers of digital influencers, a model was tested and group analysis was performed for two categories (“entertainment & video games” and “fashion & beauty”). The results show that both brand attitudes and purchase intentions are influenced by the digital influencer's attractiveness (which includes both likeability and familiarity) and by the congruence between the digital influencer and the brand. This study makes several contributions to both theory and practice, which are highlighted in this paper.     

Brand alliance and customer‐based brand‐equity effects

This research examines brand alliances, a specific marketing strategy designed to transfer the positive brand equity of two or more partner brands to the newly created joint brand. The study explores how customer‐based brand equity (that is, brand equity as seen from the customer's perspective) of partner brands affects consumer evaluations of an alliance brand; how the brand equity of one partner brand affects the other; how customer‐based brand equity of the partner brands affects consumers' evaluations of the search, experience, and credence attribute performance of the alliance brand; and how product trial influences such evaluations. Results suggest that merely the act of pairing with another brand elevates consumers' evaluations of the partner brands' customer‐based brand equity, and high‐equity partners enhance pretrial evaluation of experience and credence attributes that are relevant to the high‐equity partner. As hypothesized, product trial moderates the equity value of the alliance partner for experience attributes, and brand equity of the partner brands influences consumer perceptions of the alliance brand's equity. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

An examination of the investments in U.S. biotechnology firms by foreign and domestic corporate partners

This study examines the characteristics that make start-up biotechnology firms attractive alliance partners. We distinguish between firm specific and location-specific characteristics as well as between foreign and domestic corporate partners. We present and test a longitudinal model of alliance development based on data from 64 public biotechnology firms. The results provide evidence that foreign and domestic alliance capital inflows are driven by different factors. Firm-specific factors explain minimal variance in capital inflows from foreign alliance partners; rather, location-specific factors seem to matter more. The reverse is true for domestic alliance partners. Further, our results suggest that firm size moderates the relationship between location-specific factors and capital inflows from foreign alliance partners such that larger firms benefit more when located in technologically munificent environments.     

The role of respect in the effects of perceived ad interactivity and intrusiveness on brand and site

This paper examines the interrelated effects of respect, ad intrusiveness, and ad interactivity on attitudes toward brands and the publishers that serve online advertisements. Despite widespread use of the term, respect has received almost no attention in the advertising literature. A structural equations model indicates that ad formats that are perceived as respectful to viewers result in more favorable attitudes toward both the brand and publisher site. Ad intrusiveness negatively affects respect, while interactivity has a positive influence. Respect is demonstrated to exhibit a partial mediating role in the effect of these two variables on brand and site. Results also suggest that advertisers should strive for greater interactivity in ads if their objective is branding rather than direct response, as this can minimize the negative influence of intrusiveness. Publishers can also benefit from these kinds of ads.     

Effects of In-Game Virtual Direct Experience (VDE) on Reactions to Real-World Brands

As brand placement into video games becomes an increasingly popular marketing strategy, little research has examined the role that in-game virtual direct experience (VDE) with branded products plays in affecting recall of and attitudes toward the real-world brands. The current experiment employed the manipulation of performance features of the integral brand needed to play an auto-racing game (a Volkswagen car) to determine if players' VDE would translate into differences in real-world, brand-related outcomes. Results indicate that players who had an easier VDE exhibited greater recall of and attitudes toward the brand than did players who had a more difficult VDE. Effects generally were unique to the integral brand; peripheral brands were unaffected. Results are interpreted via the LC4MP model of memory, VDE and affect-transfer theory, and brand-placement prominence. Practical implications are discussed.     

New Thinking on Antecedents to Successful CRM Campaigns: Consumer Acceptance of an Alliance

The nature of a cause-brand alliance (CBA) makes it a unique marketing promotion that creates an association or alliance between the corporation selling a product and a social cause or issue. This study was developed to resolve the equivocal research results of past research. The research results suggest that consumer acceptance of a CBA mediates the relationships between situational contexts (prevalence of the social cause and congruence of the alliance) and consumer attitude toward the corporate alliance partner. This study observed that when prevalence is high, consumers’ acceptance of that CBA is high as well. Surprisingly, congruency did not have a significant impact on acceptance. Reasons for this unexpected finding are explored in detail. Finally, the acceptance of the CBA had a positive effect on consumers’ attitude toward the CBA.     

Alliances Between Corporate and Fair Trade Brands: Examining the Antecedents of Overall Evaluation of the Co-branded Product

This research investigates the potential for a “fair” co-branding operation. A major corporate brand is fictitiously allied with a Fair Trade labelling organization brand. The sample for the study is composed of 540 respondents, representative of the French population. By considering commercial brands and Fair Trade labels as dissimilar in terms of customers’ perceived Fair Trade orientations, this article studies (1) how this lack of similarity impacts perceived congruence between both entities (i.e. perceived relevancy and expectancy of the alliance) and (2) how prior brand attitudes and congruence influence customers’ evaluation of the co-branded product. The results of this research demonstrate that: (1) Consumer prior brand attitudes toward the partner brands influence very little customers’ evaluation. (2) Perceived similarity of the partner brands has a strong influence toward congruence of the co-branding operation. Results also indicate that congruence (measured as relevancy and expectancy) has a strong influence upon customers’ evaluation. (3) An inverted U-shaped relationship exists between perceived similarity and relevancy of the alliance, and between expectancy and customers’ evaluation. The results obtained through the test of a partial least square model, and inverted U-shaped hypothesis, represent a new insight into co-branding theory. The high discursive power of fair co-branding is a key issue: the corporate brand provides the alliance with its leading position, while the Fair Trade brand provides the ethical attribute.     

The Effect of Gay-Friendly and Non-Gay-Friendly Cues on Brand Attitudes: A Comparison of Heterosexual and Gay/Lesbian Reactions

This study sought to evaluate responses of gay and heterosexual consumers to gay-friendly and non-friendly cues and the resultant effects on the variables of brand satisfaction, brand commitment, and attitude toward the brand. Variables for predicting brand commitment based on Rusbult's Investment Model are explored. Results suggest that heterosexual consumers, while noticing gay-friendly cues in brand communications, do not develop negative attitudes as a result of exposure to those cues. Further, as gay and lesbian consumers react positively and strongly and heterosexual consumers react neutrally, it is a reasonable strategy for brands to pursue gay-friendly marketing.     

Validating the Effects of Brand Quality on Attitude and Purchase Intention in Service–Product Alliances

The purpose of this article is to replicate the findings of previous research studying the effects of brand quality on consumer attitude and purchase intentions in service–product encounters. The main contribution of the current research is to improve the generalizability of the previous findings by basing the experimental inquiry on real-world brands. Drawing on information integration and categorization theories, a set of hypotheses are presented that predict both mediating and moderating relationships between the independent and dependent variables. Results from an experimental study confirm previous findings, demonstrating that the quality of a product brand in a service–product alliance has significant effects on the attitude toward the service brand. Such effects are moderated by the quality of the service brand. Alternatively, service brand attributes do not have the same effect on component product brands included in the performance of that service. Service and product quality exhibit the same effects on purchase intentions as mediated by attitude.     

Does “Passing the Courvoisier” always pay off? Positive and negative evaluative conditioning effects of brand placements in music videos

The proliferation of brands in television programming has abounded in recent times. Especially in rap videos, actors frequently depict brands and products. One mechanism by which placements can affect consumers' attitudes is evaluative conditioning. Given that in rap videos brands are paired with liked as well as disliked actors, there is a high potential for positive and negative conditioning effects. In an experiment with an authentic rap video, the appearance of placements and the image of the rap actors were varied. The results indicate that the pairing of a brand with positively evaluated artists produces positive attitudes toward the brand. In contrast, a negative conditioning procedure results in negative attitudes toward the brand. Further analyses demonstrate that conditioning effects are even stronger when preference for rap music is high and recognition of the brand rather low. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Functional and contextual dimensions of INVs’ alliance partner selection

Prior research on the selection of international alliance partners calls for investigation of the potential specificity of selection criteria for evaluating partners for alliances with different objectives or functions. The present study responds to this need and contributes to the development of the field of international entrepreneurship by examining the relation between the alliance function and the criteria chosen. We studied three alliance functions: R&D, production, and marketing. Second, for each alliance function, we analyzed the criteria selected within two contexts: developing countries and those that consider emerging markets in their partner choice set. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 25 executives from international new ventures (INVs) in two major North American biotechnology clusters, representing 239 alliances; 65.7 % of these were signed with international partners. Results indicate that, aside from compatibility/complementarity of resources (R&D and production alliances), all criteria used within a single function are unique to that function. Furthermore, these criteria differ somewhat when the potential partners considered by a firm include those from both emerging and developed markets, compared with firms that limit potential partners to those in developed market contexts. Finally, the study reveals that respondent firms integrate country, industry, and market attractiveness factors with partner selection criteria for marketing alliances. This suggests that, for many firms, market choice and partner selection are not successive steps. The study’s originality lies in its focus on the relationship between alliance function and partner selection criteria used by INVs as well as within different contexts.     

Building brand equity with cause-related marketing: A comparison with sponsorship and sales promotion

Building brand equity is a key objective for a range of communication activities; however, greater understanding is required on how different communication options compare in their impact on consumer response to a brand. In particular, firms are increasingly using cause-related marketing (CRM) to achieve business as well as social objectives, yet there has been limited research comparing the effectiveness of this strategy to other communication methods that may achieve similar brand-related outcomes. Using an experimental design, we examine consumer attitudes toward CRM and CRM's impact on brand attitude compared with two other communication options: sponsorship and sales promotion. Our results show that consumers respond more positively to CRM and that this strategy can be more effective in achieving brand-related objectives. However, consumers must perceive that the partnered cause fits with the brand. In fact, perception of fit plays a more critical role in determining the impact of CRM than in the impact of sponsorship or sales promotion. These findings suggest that when firms are considering their communication mix, CRM can be a more effective way of developing favorable brand associations, but managers must associate with causes that consumers will perceive to fit with the brand. Furthermore, this fit should be communicated.     

To Do Well by Doing Good: Improving Corporate Image Through Cause-Related Marketing

As part of their corporate social responsibility, many organizations practice cause-related marketing, in which organizations donate to a chosen cause with every consumer purchase. The extant literature has identified the importance of the fit between the organization and the nature of the cause in influencing corporate image, as well as the influence of a connection between the cause and consumer preferences on brand attitudes and brand choice. However, prior research has not addressed which cause composition most appeals to consumers or the impact of cause choice on corporate image. A between-subjects field experiment in the Netherlands examines the influence of three core cause attributes??cause type, cause scope, and cause acuteness??on consumers?? perceptions of corporate image. Furthermore, this experiment examines the extent to which consumer identification with the cause mediates the influence of the cause attributes on corporate image. The findings indicate that identification with the cause leads to more positive evaluations of marketing campaigns for cause type and cause scope. Also, however, our results uncover a negative direct relationship between cause scope and corporate image. Cause acuteness is only marginally influential in corporate image perceptions. By proposing and testing a comprehensive model of the influence of cause attributes on corporate image in cause-related marketing, this article provides important implications and suggests avenues for further research.     

Factors predicting attitude toward disclosing personal data online

To test a theoretical model, this study explores the effect of anxiety, trust, personality, and perceived benefits on the disclosure of personal information online. An online survey conducted among participants in the United States (n = 248, age range: 20–82 years) examined attitudes toward disclosing personal data online. Specifically, the study researches the impact of anxiety disclosing personal data, trust (both in the Internet and in institutions), the Big Five personality traits, and four sets of perceived shopping benefits (opportunity, bargain, purchase, and expected privacy benefits) in e-commerce disclosure and their role as antecedents for adoption and use of e-commerce. The study aligns with existing trust literature and corroborates other findings on how perceived purchase benefits impact individuals’ attitudes toward disclosing personal data online. The data suggest that both trust in the Internet and trust in institutions positively influence attitude toward disclosing personal data online. Perceived purchase benefits were also significant positive predictors for attitude toward disclosing personal data online. Furthermore, personality dimensions can affect attitude toward disclosing: the more neurotic a person is, the more negative their attitude is about disclosing personal data online. The study underscores that consumers have a responsibility to educate themselves about online disclosure and marketing practices, and about how to protect their online privacy. Most importantly, fostering trust, reducing anxiety, and promoting benefits are essential to the future of e-commerce. Implications for theory, consumers, marketing practice, and public policy are also discussed.     

Store brand and national brand promotion attitudes antecedents

Retailers compete against national manufacturers by launching store brands. National manufactures regularly use brand promotions to fight store brands back. The purpose of this article is to find out whether attitudes toward national brand promotions and store brands have similar or different conceptual antecedents. The study presents and tests a model of the effects of shoppers´ characteristics (price and non-price-related) on attitudes toward store brand and national brand promotions. The results support that constructs relating to price impact both store brand attitude and national brand promotion attitude, but the strength of some of these relationships differ. Other shopper characteristics like brand loyalty and store loyalty, have similar negative and positive effects, respectively. These slight differences suggest that promotions of national brands might be a good tool for fighting back store brands, but manufacturers need to design and target these promotions carefully in order to avoid head-to-head competition.     

Relationship norms and media gratification in relational brand communication

Brands are increasingly engaging in relational communications, which are personalized or privative messages sent to regular customers as part of a company's relationship marketing strategies. However, little is known regarding the underlying processes governing the creation of targeted relational outcomes. Drawing on the social theory of relationship norms, this study shows that by influencing the nature of media gratification, contextual communal norms rather than exchange norms have a stronger effect on how gratification contributes to attitudes toward the media and brand gratitude as significant media-related antecedents of brand commitment. Of particular interest, this study reveals that communal media gratification (in contrast to exchange media gratification) contributes the most to gratitude outcomes, whereas it only slightly influences media attitudes. The implications of these findings are significant for brand communication researchers and managers.