Student mentors: aiding tourism businesses to overcome barriers to social media

Increasingly tourism businesses are attempting to interact and communicate with consumers using a variety of social media tools. However, many are struggling to continue to effectually and effectively engage with an interactive audience so willing to openly speak their minds. Adoption barriers exist that limit the effective use of these and other new innovative technologies. This study confirms that the main barriers to the use of information communication technologies are also reflected in the active use of social media. These include a lack of skill, knowledge, time and resources. Despite confirmation in this and other studies, there is limited research into how businesses can overcome these barriers to more productively utilise social media tools and technologies. This paper investigates the synergistic relationships between university students and small, tourism-related businesses, and how a student-industry project can aid in reducing the barriers of engagement with social media. Online questionnaires collected anonymous responses from participating businesses in 2010 and 2011. It transpired that businesses gained confidence, skills and information while simultaneously providing real-world student experiences that extended beyond the classroom into the wider community. This opportunity offered tourism businesses a point of entry for understanding and utilising these new technologies.     

A Quality Assessment of Education and for Kenya's Tour-operating Sector

This study examines the provision of tourism education and training in Kenya in the context of Sub-Saharan Africa and developing countries. Specifically the paper examines the human resource skills needed by Kenya's tour-operating sector and the extent to which current training provision is adequate. The approach used in the present study is a modified version of WTO's Tourism Education and Quality (TEDQUAL) methodology. The results indicate considerable convergence between the perceptions of industry operators and education providers concerning quality gaps in the development of skills. A number of systemic training shortcomings are identified including curriculum deficiencies and the inadequate development and enhancement of workplace skills. In view of the resource constraints facing most developing countries, it is argued that tourism training and education should consciously address the needs of the locally-based industry and that such an approach should result in a more effective education and training system.     

The Tourism Workforce and Policy: Exploring the Assumptions using Crete as the Case Study

The size of the tourism workforce has grown rapidly to the extent that today, travel and tourism is considered to be the world's largest employer. The potential of tourism for generating jobs in areas where there are few other alternatives for employment has resulted in many governments electing to expand their tourism industry. Nevertheless, tourism has been criticised for creating part-time, seasonal, low quality and informal jobs often occupied by migrants and females. This paper sets out the main characteristics of the tourism workforce as reported by academic papers, identifies whether the same characteristics are evident on the island of Crete (Greece), and discusses the issues surrounding tourism policy formulation in relation to the tourism workforce of Crete. The conclusion is that very often jobs in tourism are judged, and responses formulated, on a normative (value laden) basis (an ideal) without full consideration being given to the actual (technical) underpinnings and implications.     

Clustering and compatibility between tourism attractions

Cumulative attraction or compatibility is a powerful factor in locational decisions of retail outlets, but it has received little attention in the tourism literature. Existing studies largely ignore the impact of spatial and thematic clustering on compatibility between tourism businesses. This research questions whether and how spatial and thematic clustering are related to tourist movements between visitor attractions. The study in Cornwall, England, is based on in‐depth interviews with tourist attraction managers and key informants, complemented by a survey of 435 tourists. It provides insights into the relationship between the nature of the tourism product, spatial clustering and tourism behaviour. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Co‐operatives in southern Spain: their development in the rural tourism sector in Andalucía

This paper examines the characteristics of a number of recently established rural tourism co‐operatives in Andalucía, southern Spain against the background of the theory of co‐operatives as economic organisations. The origins and composition of the co‐operatives are examined, their local impact, their policies on employment and remuneration, and their internal management characteristics. Few of the businesses in the sample appear to possess the characteristics of the ‘ideal type’ of co‐operative identified in the literature. Although small‐scale, beneficial impacts may be identified within their localities, these appear to be no different to those associated with any small business organisation in the rural tourism sector. Furthermore, it is concluded that their prospects for developing genuine alternative forms of employment structures are not strong, partly owing to the circumstances of their foundation and partly because of the very nature of rural tourism itself, where extreme seasonality imposes a very specific labour regime. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Decline and turnaround: a literature review and proposed research agenda for the hotel sector

Tourism systems are composed of an inter-related and inter-dependent set of individual businesses, organisations and servicescapes. The hospitality industry, and more specifically the hotel sector, comprises many businesses that contribute significantly to the tourism system. Yet, the industry is renowned for business failures and poor financial returns. Increasing competition, globalisation, technology, social change and internal weaknesses are some of the reasons why tourism and hospitality businesses fail or perform significantly below expectations. When in a state of decline or poor performance, many businesses attempt a ‘turnaround’. Declining performance can have wide-ranging impacts not only on hotel businesses directly, but also upon those communities where local economies rely on tourism for jobs and economic prosperity. Consequently, an improved understanding of the processes of declining performance and turnarounds is particularly important to both researchers and practitioners. However, there has been limited research focused on turnarounds in the tourism industry, in general, and in the hotel industry, in particular. In this study we assess the literature on decline and turnarounds and propose an agenda for future research that will enhance our knowledge and inform ongoing debate on the process and impact of turnarounds in the hotel industry.     

Racism as an inhibitor to the organisational legitimacy of Indigenous tourism businesses in Australia

Indigenous policy in many countries including Australia is focused on enhancing the socio-economic situation of Indigenous peoples through the encouragement of sustainable business models, including tourism business. Arguably, however, there are too few examples of sustainable Indigenous tourism businesses. Several authors have acknowledged that racism and discrimination are inhibitors to the sustainable development of Indigenous tourism businesses. Others have suggested that racism and discrimination directly impact on the extent to which these businesses are seen and respected as ‘legitimate’; that is, Indigenous business operators need to establish themselves as legitimate businesspersons in order to operate effectively in the global marketplace. Organisational legitimacy provides a useful lens for considering racism and discrimination and the extent to which it influences the perceived legitimacy of Indigenous tourism businesses. Legitimacy theory focuses on whether the norms exhibited by an organisation are congruent with the most general norms of society. This conceptual paper explores issues of racism and discrimination in Australia and the associated implications for Indigenous tourism businesses. This discussion is situated within the broader theory of organisational legitimacy; a concept that is commonly applied in various fields of business management, yet is largely unexplored within the tourism literature.     

Responsibilities,recession and the tourism sector: perspectives on CSR among low-fares airlines during the economic downturn in the UK

Responsibility has featured prominently in recent discussions about tourism governance. Nevertheless, research into corporate social responsibility (CSR) among travel and tourism businesses is at a relatively early stage. This paper reports on external stakeholders' perceptions of CSR among low-fares airlines (LFAs) in peripheral regions of the UK in late 2008; that is, during the current global economic downturn. LFAs, their business plans and their ability to contribute towards sustainable development have been the source of much public discourse and media scrutiny in the last decade. This paper does not set out to reopen that debate per se. Rather, it contributes to a deeper understanding of CSR in the tourism sector by arguing for a more nuanced approach to external stakeholders, one which is also informed by primary empirical research from qualitative sources, and which is conceptually informed by the latest thinking from other sectors of economic activity. Important inter-regional variations exist in external stakeholders' perceptions and valorisations of CSR, they are context-specific, and they are not static as their responses to the recent downturn reveal.     

How company and managerial characteristics influence strategic alliance adoption in the travel sector

The purpose of this paper is to examine the role of company and executive characteristics in strategic alliance formation in the tourism sector of travel. A survey of Australian travel sector businesses was carried out and the results indicate a high level of interaction through alliances between various sectors of the Australian tourism industry. Top managers' characteristics (experience, ownership and risk‐taking attitude) were found to be influential in taking strategic decisions of whether to form alliances or not. These characteristics do not play an important role in determining the number of alliances an organisation has and their geographical location, as much as company characteristics do. The findings of this paper imply that company characteristics are important in determining alliance formation. Managers should thoroughly consider these characteristics when deciding not only to form alliances, but also the types of alliances that could help their organisations to be more competitive, given limited resources. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The relationship between business characteristics and ICT deployment in the rural tourism sector. The case of Spain

The deployment of information and communication technologies (ICT) is crucial for the competitiveness of rural tourism businesses. It is therefore important to know the relation between a firm's characteristics and ICT deployment. This study makes two hierarchical segmentations to predict the behaviour of these firms when deploying the Web and e‐mail. This work determines which characteristics are related to ICT deployment. Activity and category are the two characteristics that most effectively predict a firm's behaviour, whereas location and size are less effective. These results have implications for entrepreneurial behaviour and for public agents working in rural tourism. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Multinational hotel development in developing countries: an exploratory analysis of critical policy issues

Multinational hotel companies, often integrated with tour operators, travel agencies and other businesses in tourist‐generating or tourist‐receiving countries, play a key role in the development and continuity of an international tourism industry in developing countries. In order to take advantage of benefits and minimise the unwanted adverse effects from multinational hotel involvement, developing countries need the planning, implementation and evaluation of carefully designed policies linked to their particular objectives. This paper reviews the potential benefits and costs of multinational hotel companies and brings together previously scattered critical policy issues in relation to them, while suggesting possible options for developing countries to follow. Seven critical policy areas are identified: establishment of the need for foreign investment; deciding on forms of involvement; deciding on the scale of hotel development; supporting sectoral linkages; supporting indigenous employment/training; monitoring business practices; and determining foreign investment incentives and regulations. It is argued that policies should be worked out in these areas and co‐ordinated in order to achieve a balance between the benefits and costs of multinational hotel involvement in developing countries. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Rural Tourism Partnerships and Actor Mobility

In this paper, I examine actor mobility within the context of rural tourism partnerships (RTPs). The term ‘actor’ refers to those who have a stake in tourism planning, promotion and development such as policy makers, businesses, non‐profit making sector and community groups. Mobility is embedded in personal and social histories of actors as well as the policy framework that impacts their daily lives and informs their motives for being (dis)associated with RTPs. While exploring how actors' journeys transform rural localities' socio‐economic fabric, I find the writings of Lefebvre and de Certeau particularly useful because of their focus on counter‐hegemonic practices that shape the ‘everyday life’. Given that most rural societies in current times comprise an intricate mix of long‐term residents, seasonal‐home owners and migrants, each with their distinct set of life stories and value preferences with regard to their place of dwelling, my thrust in this paper on actor mobility is likely to identify new areas of future research on RTPs. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Assessing staff turnover: a view from the English Riviera

This paper explores the extent of labour turnover in tourism businesses in the seaside resort of Torbay. In‐depth interviews assisted in providing a better understanding of factors contributing to staff turnover in the destination. Turnover rates were found to be high, but varied depending on type and size of business. Evidence was found that supported the literature of a split in the tourism workforce between core and peripheral workers. Perceptions of factors that cause turnover varied considerably. Little difference was found in employers' and employees' perceptions of factors that cause staff turnover. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Advancing consumer behaviour theory in tourism via visual narrative art

This paper advances (i) propositions of consumer behaviour theory in tourism via storytelling theory and (ii) skills in decoding elements and subtle details that appear in ‘good stories’ versus not‐so‐good stories within travel contexts. The present paper presents a set of iconic story symbols for use in decoding stories and shows how to use these tools for decoding tourism‐related narratives. Practice using these visual iconic symbols in decoding stories achieves effective storytelling learning via cognitive sculpting; that is, learning improves from moving and arranging (sculpting) potentially three‐dimensional story or electronically movable icons while talking or writing narratives. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Small business— small minded? Training attitudes and needs of the tourism and hospitality industry

The Australian tourism and hospitality industry consists of at least 80% small business operators scattered over a wide range of urban and rural environments, consequently it has not been easy for training providers to assess accurately the needs of the industry as a whole and provide specialised programmes. During 1996, Tourism Training Victoria conducted a survey of training needs of tourism and hospitality operators. Results indicate that there is a shortage of skilled staff and owner‐managers with little management training or qualifications, who nonetheless recognise their shortcomings and needs for further education and training, particularly in the marketing and business areas. Barriers to further training include the cost of training and inflexibility of hours and place of delivery. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Understanding tourists' itineraries in emerging rural tourism regions: the application of paper-based itinerary mapping methodology to a wine tourism region in Michigan

In recent years, many rural areas have turned to tourism as a way of reviving their communities. One challenge to such efforts is that community leaders in these areas often have limited experience with tourism and consequently lack the knowledge and resources to best facilitate sustainable tourism initiatives. Moreover, an influx of tourists to an area puts new demands on infrastructure. Information about tourists' itineraries can help communities to address new challenges that result from tourism, however using emerging technologies such as GPS and Internet-based map surveys can be expensive and require expertise many rural tourism planners do not have. Paper-based itinerary mapping methodology can be a cost effective way of providing local officials, tourism planners, and businesses with important information to inform decisions about how to invest limited resources. This study applies paper-based itinerary mapping to an emerging wine tourism area in a rural county in the US state of Michigan. Because it involves tourists travelling from place to place within a region, wine tourism is particularly well-suited for itinerary mapping. Results provide specific recommendations to local officials, tourism planners, and businesses. Moreover, the study offers an example to researchers interested in conducting studies that use paper-based itinerary mapping methodology.     

Strategies for Adopting Consumer‐generated Media in Small‐sized to Medium‐sized Tourism Enterprises

Consumer‐generated media (CGM) are created when consumers submit, review or respond to online content. The bulk of research into CGM has focussed upon its use by consumers, with less research examining the use of CGM by small businesses. This article discusses small business sector use of online technologies such as CGM, concentrating on tourism small businesses as a key industry sector affected by CGM activities. A CGM ‘strategy’ framework, developed from an existing small business strategy framework, is proposed. This serves as a practical tool for developing CGM strategies and as a theoretical foundation for conducting research into the use of CGM. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Is the financing of tourism by international financial institutions inclusive? A proposal for measurement

It is acknowledged that tourism can have a great potential for reducing poverty; however, the growth of tourism has stagnated in financially excluded areas because of the difficulty local tourism businesses have in accessing the financial system. International financial institutions advocate the promotion of tourism as a development tool and in the fight against financial exclusion. This paper presents a tool for measuring whether the performance of these organizations is inclusive regarding tourism financing. The results obtained from applying this tool to the analysis of projects in Latin America and the Caribbean show that the financing provided for tourism projects in this region is not inclusive.     

Success factors and constraints among nature-based tourism entrepreneurs

The nature-based tourism sector is characterised by small-scale businesses often located in rural regions. As a consequence, business success is dependent not just upon the sustainable use of natural resources, but also on several external (e.g. infrastructure and destination images) and internal (e.g. management and human resources) factors. Many nature-based tourism entrepreneurs are also driven by non-monetary objectives, which imply different management priorities compared with many other businesses. This study provides an exploratory analysis of business success factors and constraints among nature-based tourism entrepreneurs in Sweden. Data collected in 2009 include ‘life-history’ interviews, a telephone survey of 176 entrepreneurs, and follow-up critical incident interviews. The results show that internal factors are more common for business success, while external factors dominate among the constraints. Among the 26 success items studied, management (commitment and competence), access to natural resources, and lifestyle are considered the most important. Low profitability, lack of capital, regulations, infrastructure, and taxes are given the highest weights among the constraints. The classification system of Ishikawa [(1990). Introduction to quality control (J.H. Loftus, Trans.). Tokyo: 3A Corporation] is used to analyse how business success and constraints are structured over time. This study also elaborates how success factors and constraints are associated with different types of businesses, including perceived monetary and non-monetary achievements.     

Post-Conflict tourism development in Sri Lanka: implications for building resilience

The 30?year war between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) had a considerable impact on the country's tourism industry. Yet, despite the war, the industry continued to exhibit a high level of resilience and since the end of the war international visitation has increased rapidly. This study, using a comprehensive review of literature and a series of interviews, examines the impact of the war on the industry as well as the government's post-conflict responses. Despite the rapid increase in international tourism numbers various concerns have been raised that government policies are likely to advantage large tourism operators and developers at the expense of small businesses in the informal sector. The development of the industry may also be at the expense of livelihoods of poorer members of society in other industries. A concentration on large-scale developments may reduce the resilience and therefore sustainability of the industry.