An Assessment of the Value and Importance of Quality Assurance Policies and Procedures to the Guatemalan Snow Pea Trade

Abstract

This paper presents an assessment of the potential impact, at the exporter level, of implementing industry-wide uniform production and post-harvest practices in snow pea farming that are consistent with U.S. Good Agricultural Practice guidelines. Some exporters indicated paying an averaging of $0.74 per kg of snow peas that were 60% to 80% export grade on the open market. However, others paid an average of $0.77 and $0.84 per kg for snow peas that were 85% to 95% export grade. Despite the appearance of the open market being the low cost source for snow peas, our research indicates the opposite is true. The open market was the most expensive source for export quality snow peas. That, combined with the lack of record keeping and other quality safeguards, suggests that exporters who obtained snow peas primarily from the open market were at a competitive disadvantage.     

Pricing to Market Behavior by Canadian and U.S. Agri-food Exporters: Evidence from Wheat, Pulse and Apples

A fixed-effects model to control for time variation in marginal costs is employed to pinpoint evidence of price discriminatory behavior of Canadian and U.S. exporters of agri-food products. We test for evidence of pricing to market behavior and whether price discrimination or commodity/country characteristics may provide a plausible explanation. A distinguishing feature of our approach is to examine the time-series properties of the data by the conventional augmented Dickey-Fuller and recently developed panel unit root test. The panel data set employed in this paper consists of annual exchange rates and export prices for three agri-food products (wheat, pulse and apples) exported by Canada and the U.S. in foreign markets during 1980–98. Our fixed-effects model suggests that U.S. exporters are sensitive to exchange rate changes, while Canadian exporters in most cases raised price markups in response to a depreciated currency in overseas markets. The results highlight the differences in pricing policy that both countries employ to merchandise agri-food products in export markets.     

Characteristics of Successful Southeastern U.S. Agribusiness Exporters

Abstract

A survey of southeastern U.S. agribusiness exporters showed that export firms had many characteristics in common regardless of commodity category. In general, the profile of a successful southeastern U.S. agribusiness exporter in terms of export sales is one that tends to have higher total sales, foreign and domestic, and more export-market experience though the firm tends to be relatively young. While almost half of the firms engaged in promotion activities, less than a quarter of the respondents availed themselves of federal export promotion/assistance programs because of unfamiliarity or perceived costs. An overwhelming majority considered freight forwarding companies as indispensable parties to all transactions because of the extreme complexity of export-import logistics.     

Determining Opportunities for U.S. Exports of Consumer-Oriented Foods to African Regional Markets

Abstract

This study examines the level of trade between the U.S. and Africa for consumer-oriented agricultural products during the 1990s. To achieve this objective, we propose six congruent regional African markets and examine patterns of U.S. trade with Africa on consumer-oriented agricultural products. The reason for such groupings is to identify trade flow differences and similarities between the U. S. and each of these regional groups. The results shed light on the extent to which U.S. exporters of consumer food products are capitalizing on the emerging markets of Africa. The graphing technique used in the study, in combination with trend stability measures for the six proposed congruent regional African markets, introduce a method for identifying market opportunity.     

Determinants of Fish Export Performance in Oman

Abstract

The objective of this study was to identify the key variables affecting export performance at the firm level and draw the policy implications necessary to enhance Oman fish exports. The methodology adopted is inspired from the international marketing literature, which postulates that export performance is determined by both internal factors, under the control of the firm, and external factors. Empirically, the study used an econometric model and a firm survey data to investigate the link between export intensity, defined as the proportion of export sale to total sale and 4 sets of firm-level specific factors: (1) firm size and competencies, (2) management characteristics, (3) management perceptions and attitude, and (4) marketing strategy. Results show that both the age and firm size, measured by the number of years in business and the number of employees, had no significant effect on export performance. Managers' education level, previous work experience, commitment to exporting activities, diversification, and availability of information on foreign markets are all significant variables, positively affecting export performance. These results underscore a role of the private sector in upgrading their human and physical capital and the role of a government as a public good provider in securing information and providing financial incentives to reduce risk associated with diversifying export     

Patent Rights and Trade: Analysis of Biological Products, Medicinals and Botanicals, and Pharmaceuticals

This article analyzes the effects of foreign patent rights on U.S. bilateral exports. The empirical analysis covers three highly disaggregated drug industries over three decades. We estimate bilateral trade equations for each industry using cross-country data on the strength of national patent rights. The findings show that strong foreign patent rights enhance the market power of U.S. drug exporters across countries with weak imitative abilities. Alternatively, strong foreign patent rights stimulate the market expansion of U.S. drug exports across countries with strong imitative abilities. These effects are larger in magnitude during the 1980–90s relative to the 1970s.     

辽宁水产品出口贸易发展态势及倍增路径选择

辽宁是中国水产品贸易体系的重要一员,2002年以来其水产品出口额位居全国前4位,出口品种达150种,出口贸易涉足6大洲99个国家;出口贸易的重心依然在亚洲,69％的水产品销往高收入国家或地区;加工贸易方式依然是出口的主要模式,成为辽宁渔业融入全球水产品生产网络并参与水产业分工的重要途径;出口贸易运行渠道可分解为原料水产品供应管理、水产品加工管理、水产品贸易管理、水产品物流管理等环节及流转途径.然而,水产品出口金额倍增目标的实现非常艰巨.对于此,可选择力推水产品优势养殖产业带建设、挖掘潜力发挥渔业产业链条作用、提高对渔业公共物品的投资强度、改进水产品国际竞争力影响因素、面向全球的水产品目标营销战略等路径.     

Standards as Barriers Versus Standards as Catalysts: Assessing the Impact of HACCP Implementation on U.S. Seafood Imports

The United States mandated a Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) food safety standard for seafood in 1997. Panel model results for 1990 to 2004 suggest that HACCP introduction had a negative and significant impact on overall imports from the top thirty-three suppliers. While the effect for developed countries was positive, the negative effect for developing countries supports the view of "standards as barriers" versus "standards as catalysts." A different perspective emerges from individual country-level analysis. Regardless of development status, leading seafood exporters generally experienced a positive HACCP effect, while most other smaller trading partners faced a negative effect.     

Food Product Acceptance in Foreign Distribution Channels

This article examines some of the factors associated with gaining product acceptance by middlemen in export channels. Our thesis is that a major problem for (potential) exporters is not so much to select, but rather to be selected by middlemen in the target country. If significant differences of opinion occur between exporter and importer regarding the importance of certain product and/or organizational factors, the product acceptance decision may be negative. This study focuses on the opinions of U.S. importers and Dutch exporters of food and beverage products with respect to the final step of the import-export interaction model; the buying decision.     

The impact of entry costs on export market participation in agriculture

Theoretical models of market entry imply that sunk costs are an important factor in the decision to export. Following Helpman, Melitz, and Rubinstein (2008) , we develop a simple model of foreign market participation and use a Bayesian method to estimate the resulting dynamic discrete‐choice model with lagged dependent variable. Employing a balanced panel data that follows 81 trading partners for 30 years from 1971 to 2000, we estimate our model and compute the marginal effect of sunk costs on the likelihood of export market participation. We find that such costs are economically and statistically important for trade in all of the six major agricultural commodities (Cereals, Dairy, Fish, Meat, Vegetables and Fruits, and Sugar), for agricultural producers in both developed and developing countries. We also find evidence suggesting that, in general, market access for both developed and developing exporters had improved in the years following the Uruguay round of trade negotiations (1995–2000).     

The Technological Structure and Performance of Developing Country Manufactured Exports, 1985‐98

This paper maps out the recent manufactured export patterns of developing countries, using a new and detailed classification by technological levels. It argues that export structures, being path-dependent and difficult to change, have important implications for growth and development. Low-technology products (which have the least beneficial learning and spillover effects) tend to grow the slowest, and technology-intensive products (which have the most beneficial effects) the fastest in world trade. East Asia dominates the developing country scene, with 70% of total manufactured exports, and its role rises over time. There is also high and rising concentration at the national level. The technological specialization of different regions and the leading exporters differ greatly, as do the strategies used to achieve competitiveness. Received trade theory cannot explain these patterns without considering learning processes and the policies used to promote them.     

Firm Size,Technological Capabilities and Market-oriented Policies in Mauritius

Mauritius is an outlier in sub-Saharan Africa in terms of its impressive growth in garment exports since it adopted outward-oriented policies in the early 1980s. Little, however, is known about the role of technological factors in the behaviour of Mauritian garment exporters. Using recent methodological developments in the literature on technological capabilities, this paper explores this issue. It constructs a "technology index" and conducts econometric analysis on factors affecting enterprise-level technological development and export performance in a sample of enterprises. Firm size, technical manpower, training expenditures and external technical assistance are positively related to the technology index, suggesting that investments in human capital and information (both facilitated by size) improve technological performance. The technology index and foreign ownership have positive and significant effects on export performance. The technology index is a robust tool of empirical research and can be used to analyse the technological record of enterprises in adjusting countries.     

Sources of Real Exchange Rate Variability:

The effect of real exchange rate variability on the demand for agricultural imports by developing countries has potentially important implications for U.S. exporters because of the potential for expanded trade. This study uses the Edwards model (1987) to investigate variations in monetary factors, terms-of-trade, and trade policy (openness) as sources of Trinidad and Tobago's real exchange rate variability. Given that the influence of these factors on the determination of real exchange rate variability may be affected by the way in which trade-weighted-exchange-rate indexes are constructed, indexes for corn and wheat were used. The results indicate that although reductions in terms-of-trade variation yield reductions in exchange rate variability, monetary disturbances display both of the real-exchange-rate-variability-increasing and decreasing effects depending on the index used. Thus, the results do not support any clear set of policy actions through which export opportunities could be expanded for U.S. agricultural commodities.     

Agricultural Export Subsidies as a Tool of Trade Strategy: Before and After the Federal Agricultural Improvement and Reform Act of 1996

If the main justification for agricultural export subsidies is that they reduce government costs of deficiency payments, then the 1996 farm legislation would make U.S. export subsidies largely unnecessary. An additional argument advanced in favor of export subsidies is that their aggressive use by one country will cause competing countries to reduce or discontinue their own subsidies. This argument is explored by means of a Nash equilibrium in which countries choose both a base subsidy level and a response to competitors, and by a consistent conjectures equilibrium. Little support is found for the argument.     

Successful Practices in California Wine Exporting

Abstract

California is one of the world's largest wine producers, yet it has exported only a small portion of its products. Many US wineries want to pursue opportunities in foreign markets but only a few are actually doing this successfully. Therefore, this study attempts to identify the successful practices of 12 California wineries that have achieved their financial targets and other export goals. A qualitative research design of in-depth interviews was employed. Results indicate that there are 5 major success factors, with the two most important being the foreign partner relationship and top management vision and commitment to exporting.     

广东水产品出口面临的技术性贸易壁垒及对策

比较分析广东水产品出口贸易和受阻情况,可发现不断增多的检测项目和日益严格的限量标准、不断升级的包装与标签要求、对出口企业实施注册登记备案制度和实施技术性贸易措施的国家不断增多是影响广东水产品出口的主要技术性贸易壁垒。根据当前广东水产品出口面临的形势和任务,广东水产品出口为更好地应对国外技术性贸易措施,应该建立与完善技术性贸易措施预警体系,完善检测技术体系,保护水生生态环境,主导或参与制定国际贸易规则,进行技术创新,提高产品质量,制定和实施市场多元化战略。     

技术性贸易壁垒对安徽出口贸易的影响及战略选择

近年来,安徽对外贸易发展迅速,贸易量不断增长的同时,面临的国际市场竞争也日益激烈,技术性贸易壁垒的阻碍日趋严重,已成为制约安徽出口扩大的第一大非关税壁垒。因此,研究技术性贸易壁垒对安徽出口贸易的影响,并提出积极的应对措施,有助于安徽省出口贸易的发展和外贸竞争力的提高。文章将对此进行深入分析并提出相关建议,以期对加快安徽省外贸发展有所启示。     

碳关税的征收对中国纸制品出口贸易的长期影响效应分析

发达国家以保护全球环境为名提出了有关碳关税的政策,但是结合碳关税的相关政策内容来看,其动机是为了抑制发展中国家高能耗产品的出口,以便保证自身高能耗产品在国际的地位。我国身为纸制品出口贸易大国,一旦实行碳关税政策,将会对经济发展带来严重影响,基于此本文分析碳关税对中国纸制品出口贸易的长期影响效应具有十分重要的意义。     

Post–Uruguay Round price linkages between developed and developing countries: the case of rice and wheat markets

The Uruguay Round Agreement on agriculture attempted to lower distortions in global agricultural markets. However, the significant fall in commodity prices in the late 1990s may have reduced the incentives for both developed and developing countries to better integrate into world markets. This study analyzes price linkages and adjustment between developed and developing countries during the post–Uruguay Round period. Prices of two key commodities, long‐grain rice and medium‐hard wheat, are assembled for major exporters and producers. Results of multivariate cointegration analysis suggest partial market integration between developed and developing countries in the post–Uruguay Round period. Developed countries are found to be price leaders in these two markets, and in most cases, changes in their prices have relatively large impacts on those of the developing countries. Developing countries (e.g., Vietnam and Argentina) have faced considerable price adjustment due to changes in the developed countries' prices.     

Price or politics? An investigation of the causes of expropriation*

Expropriations of foreign direct investment in developing countries are typically blamed on political and economic crises in those countries. Developing a new database of expropriations in the minerals sectors of developing country exporters, I show that expropriations were correlated with mineral price booms and that democratic governments were more likely to expropriate. No link is found between expropriations and political or economic crises, except at independence. A better explanation of expropriation would be opportunistic behaviour by host governments when profits of investments are high. In two developed countries, Australia and Canada, expropri‐ations are also found to occur during price booms.