Liquidity and Stock Exchange Listing

This study examines the pattern of stock price behavior for a sample of 71 firms that moved from NASDAQ and NASDAQ/NMS to the American Stock Exchange (AMEX) between 1982 and 1987. The study tests the liquidity gains hypothesis, which states that investors expect liquidity gains for the less liquid over-the-counter stocks but not for their more liquid counterparts after their listing on the AMEX. The results support the hypothesis by showing a significant difference between the two groups of stocks on the day the AMEX announced approval of the listing. Thus, companies with low liquidity are the largest beneficiaries of listing. The evidence provides little support for the anomalous negative pattern of returns during the post-listing period reported in previous studies.     

Alternative Liquidity Measures and Stock Returns

Abstract. This article compares the properties of several common liquidity measures including the bid-ask spread, the liquidity ratio and firm size. We also use the proportional hazard model to develop a new measure, the relative odds ratio, based on the volume necessary to move prices by a predetermined amount. Although each measure displays a liquidity premium, a composite measure better explaims expected returns, suggesting that liquidity is a multidimensional phenomenon.     

Limit Order Book as a Market for Liquidity

We develop a dynamic model of a limit order market populatedby strategic liquidity traders of varying impatience. In equilibrium,patient traders tend to submit limit orders, whereas impatienttraders submit market orders. Two variables are the key determinantsof the limit order book dynamics in equilibrium: the proportionof patient traders and the order arrival rate. We offer severaltestable implications for various market quality measures suchas spread, trading frequency, market resiliency, and time toexecution for limit orders. Finally, we show the effect of imposinga minimal price variation on these measures.     

Market Response to Liquidity Improvements: Evidence from Exchange Listings

The study examines a sample of 895 stocks that moved from Nasdaq to the New York Stock Exchange or to the American Stock Exchange (Amex) between 1971 and 1994. We show how various measures of liquidity such as the bid‐ask spread, trading volume, and stock price precision improve in somewhat different ways upon transfer to NYSE (Amex). We also find that reductions in trading costs (percentage spread) and in pricing error volatility (Hasbrouck's σ₅) can explain most of stock market's positive response to exchange listing. Thus, liquidity has many facets and cannot be represented by the bid‐ask spread alone.     

Liquidity skewness in the London Stock Exchange

We study liquidity on the London Stock Exchange. We find that the average bid-ask spread declines, but that the skewness of the spread increases. These results are robust to firm size, trading volume and price level. Our findings hold when the bid-ask spread is estimated utilising high frequency data. We find that the bid-ask spread prior to earnings announcements dates is significantly higher than that of post earnings announcements, suggesting that asymmetric information has driven the increase in liquidity skewness. We also find that the effect of earnings announcements is more pronounced in the 2007 global financial crisis, consistent with the notion that extreme market downturns amplify asymmetric information. Our overall evidence also implies that increased competition and transparent trading environments limit market makers' abilities to cross-subsidize bid-ask spreads between periods of high and low levels of asymmetric information.     

Liquidity Commonality in the London Stock Exchange

Abstract:  A number of events such as the international market crash of October 1987 and the 1997 East Asian crisis show that individual firm liquidity is affected by market-wide factors. However, research in systematic liquidity is still at an embryonic stage and given the gap in the literature, the paper offers first time evidence (to the best of our knowledge) on the presence of systematic liquidity in the UK using FTSE100 and FTSE250 stocks. The unique setting of the London Stock Exchange as regards changes in trading regimes, allows an original answer as to whether changes in the nature of market making from obligatory to non-obligatory, affect commonality in liquidity. Results indicate that commonality is quite strong for FTSE100 stocks at individual and portfolio level, while for the FTSE250 it is strong only at portfolio level. Overall commonality is on average similar across trading regimes, irrespective of the nature of the provision of liquidity.     

Banks as Liquidity Providers: An Explanation for the Coexistence of Lending and Deposit-Taking

What ties together the traditional commercial banking activities of deposit‐taking and lending? We argue that since banks often lend via commitments, their lending and deposit‐taking may be two manifestations of one primitive function: the provision of liquidity on demand. There will be synergies between the two activities to the extent that both require banks to hold large balances of liquid assets: If deposit withdrawals and commitment takedowns are imperfectly correlated, the two activities can share the costs of the liquid‐asset stockpile. We develop this idea with a simple model, and use a variety of data to test the model empirically.     

Liquidity as Social Expertise

This paper proposes a theory of liquidity dynamics. Illiquidity results from asymmetric information. Observing the historical track record teaches agents how to interpret public information and helps overcome information asymmetry. However, an illiquidity trap can arise: too much asymmetric information leads to the breakdown of trade, which interrupts learning and perpetuates illiquidity. Liquidity falls in response to unexpected events that lead agents to question their valuation models (especially in newer markets) may be slow to recover after a crisis, and is higher in periods of stability.     

对外汇储备激增与流动性过剩关系的研究

外汇储备过快增长与流动性过剩已成为我国经济中的两个突出问题。在基于中央银行的资产负债表和货币数量理论的基础上,分析了我国外汇储备激增是导致流动性过剩的主要原因,对上述结论进行了实证检验,最后总结了流动性过剩对经济金融体系的影响,并从三个方面提出了治理流动性过剩的措施。     

Exposure-Based Cash-Flow-at-Risk: An Alternative to VaR for Industrial Companies

Cash-Flow-at-Risk (CFaR) is the cash flow equivalent of Value-at-Risk (VaR), a measure widely used as the basis for risk management in financial institutions. Whereas VaR-based systems specify the maximum amount of total value a firm is expected to lose under most foreseeable conditions (for example, with a 99% confidence level), CFaR-based systems determine the maximum shortfall of cash the firm is willing to tolerate. CFaR is gaining in popularity among industrial companies for much the same reasons VaR has succeeded with financial firms: it sums up all the company's risk exposures in a single number that can be used to guide corporate risk management decisions.
The authors describe a six-step process for calculating a measure they call "exposure-based CFaR" and then demonstrate its application to Norsk Hydro, the Norwegian industrial conglomerate. Exposure-based CFaR involves the estimation of a set of exposure coefficients that provide information about how various macroeconomic and market variables are expected to affect the company's cash flow, while also accounting for interdependencies among such effects. The resulting model enables management to estimate the variability in corporate cash flow as a function of various risks, and to predict how a hedging contract or a change in financial structure will alter the company's risk profile.     

Arbitrage,Liquidity, and the Valuation of Exchange Traded Funds

This paper investigates the performance of U.S. and country exchange traded funds currently traded in the United States and provides new insight into their pricing. While the U.S. funds are priced closely to their net asset values, the country funds are not and can exhibit large, positive autocorrelations in fund premium. The mispricing of country funds is related to momentum, illiquidity, and size effects. We also find an inverted U‐shaped relationship between fund premium and market liquidity, which suggests that more active trading does lead to lower mispricing but only after a certain level of liquidity is reached.     

均衡汇率：汇率调整的主要依据

人民币是高估还是低估的讨论，就是相对于一个参照系的问题，即经济学上所说的均衡汇率问题。均衡汇率是汇率理论中的核心问题之一，是判断汇率水平是否失调及汇率政策是否需要调整的主要客观依据。     

流动性过剩的经济学分析

中国经济在扩张性运行中已经出现了较为严重的流动性过剩,而且由于其特殊的形成机理和独特的金融环境,传统的调控手段已经力不从心.防止流动性的进一步泛滥,需要在经济发展战略、外汇管理体制和金融工具的创新等方面深耕细作.     

Banks' Liquidity and the Cost of Liquidity to Corporations

We consider the liquidity shock banks experienced following the collapse of the asset‐backed commercial paper (ABCP) market in the fall of 2007 to investigate whether banks' liquidity conditions affect their ability to provide liquidity to corporations. We find that banks that borrowed more from the Federal Home Loan Bank system or the Federal Reserve's discount window following that liquidity shock passed a larger portion of their borrowing costs onto corporations seeking access to liquidity when compared to the precrisis period. This increase is larger among banks with a bigger exposure to the ABCP market, credit lines that pose more liquidity risk to banks, and borrowers that are likely dependent on the credit‐line provider. Our findings show that the crisis that affected the banking system had a negative effect not only on the price of credit to corporations, but also on the price corporations pay to guarantee access to liquidity.     

Locked Up by a Lockup: Valuing Liquidity as a Real Option

Hedge funds often impose lockups and notice periods to limit the ability of investors to withdraw capital. We model the investor's decision to withdraw capital as a real option and treat lockups and notice periods as exercise restrictions. Our methodology incorporates time-varying probabilities of hedge fund failure and optimal early exercise. We estimate a two-year lockup with a three-month notice period costs approximately 1% of the initial investment for an investor with constant relative risk aversion utility and risk aversion of three. The cost of illiquidity can easily exceed 10% if the hedge fund manager can arbitrarily suspend withdrawals.     

Asset Prices,Liquidity, and Monetary Policy in an Exchange Economy

I formulate a model in which money coexists with equity shares on a risky aggregate endowment. Agents can use equity as a means of payment, so shocks to equity prices translate into aggregate liquidity shocks that disrupt the mechanism of exchange. I characterize a family of optimal monetary policies and find that the resulting equity prices are independent of monetary considerations. I also study a perturbation of the family of optimal policies that targets a positive constant nominal interest rate and find that in this case the real equity return includes a liquidity return that depends on monetary considerations.