Implementing Subnational Value Added Taxes on Internal Trade: The Compensating VAT (CVAT)

Thispaper describes an ingenious and elegant scheme for implementinga destination-based value added tax (VAT) on cross-border tradewithin a nation or group of nations. Sales to local purchasers(registered traders, households, and unregistered traders) wouldbe subject to the local VAT, but sales to purchasers in otherstates would be zero-rated for state VAT and subject insteadto a ``compensating value added tax' (CVAT). Credit would beallowed for tax on purchases by registered traders: for the localVAT on intrastate purchases and for the CVAT on interstate purchases.     

VAT and agriculture: lessons from Europe

Little has been written about the treatment of agriculture under the value added tax (VAT). This article attempts to fill the void by surveying and evaluating the situation in the Member States of the European Union (EU) and some other countries. Farmers are often exempted from VAT for administrative and political reasons. But this means that the VAT on their inputs cannot be ‘washed out’ through the tax deduction/credit mechanism. It then has to be borne by the farmers themselves or becomes an indeterminate and capricious element in consumer prices. To compensate farmers for the uncompensated VAT on inputs, the EU has devised a flat-rate scheme that permits them to charge a presumptive rate (approximately equal to the effective VAT rate on sector-wide inputs) on their sales to taxable agro-processing firms which, in turn, are permitted to take a deduction for this flat-rate addition from the VAT on their sales. Obviously, the flat-rate scheme is an arbitrary way of trying to achieve equal treatment between exempt and taxable farmers and between exempt farm products and other taxable goods and services. Full taxation, subject to the general threshold, appears to be the preferred choice.     

The value-added tax and growth: design matters

Previous research has shown that changes in the composition of tax revenue affect long-run growth. However, little is yet known about whether the way tax revenue is raised matters for growth. This paper examines whether, in the context of OECD countries, a revenue-neutral increase in the value-added tax (VAT), offset by a fall in income taxes, may have different effects on long-run growth depending on how the VAT is raised. We show that a revenue-neutral rise in the VAT promotes growth when it is raised through a rise in C-efficiency, while it does not when it is raised through a rise in the standard VAT rate, the rate applied to the largest portion of taxed consumption. C-efficiency measures the departure of the VAT from a perfectly enforced tax levied at a single rate on all consumption, which in advanced economies is largely due to the VAT that is not levied because of exemptions and reduced rates. Thus, our results suggest that an increase in C-efficiency, possibly reflecting the broadening of the VAT base through fewer exemptions and a more uniform rate structure with fewer reduced rates, promotes growth more than a rise in the standard rate.

     

“增值税扩围”去从

通过解读美国的相关政策,或许能给中国物流业税收政策改革一些启示。物流业作为服务业中不可分割的一部分,它的发展离不开税收的支持。在我国增值税尚未转型前,由于营业税造成增值税抵扣链条断裂已增加了企业外购物流服务的成本,在固定资产增值     

增值税超速增长的微观机制分析

本文基于企业的视角对增值税与GDP的增长机制进行了分析，本文认为企业缴纳增值税的增长速度与企业所创造的GDP的增长速度并非必然保持一致。在企业内部与外部都有使二者不一致的因素，原材料投产率、增值率、产品销售率、折旧以及外购机器设备等企业内部因素会在企业的生产过程当中使二者增速发生偏离。除企业内部因素外，统计数据的修正也会导致增值税与GDP增速前后不一。     

Network Externalities and Indirect Tax Preferences for Electronic Commerce

Although most arguments supporting preferential tax treatment of electronic commerce are suspect, the existence of network externalities provides one potentially defensible rationale. This paper considers (1) direct network externalities, which arise in communications networks like the Internet, (2) indirect network externalities, which arise in computer hardware/software systems in imperfectly competitive markets, and (3) learning network externalities, which arise when existing network participants assist new users. It concludes the case for preferential treatment is weak, and that proposed blanket sales tax exemptions of remote (or all) e-commerce are especially inappropriate. Finally, the paper comments briefly on US sales tax reform efforts.     

The efficiency of Bitcoin: A strongly typed genetic programming approach to smart electronic Bitcoin markets

Cryptocurrencies have gained a lot of attention since Bitcoin was first proposed by Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008, highlighting the potential to play a significant role in e-commerce. However, relatively little is known about cryptocurrencies, their price behaviour, how quickly they incorporate new information and their corresponding market efficiency. To extend the current literature in this area, we develop four smart electronic Bitcoin markets populated with different types of traders using a special adaptive form of the Strongly Typed Genetic Programming (STGP)-based learning algorithm. We apply the STGP technique to historical data of Bitcoin at the one-minute and five-minute frequencies to investigate the formation of Bitcoin market dynamics and market efficiency. Through a plethora of robust testing procedures, we find that both Bitcoin markets populated by high-frequency traders (HFTs) are efficient at the one-minute frequency but inefficient at the five-minute frequency. This finding supports the argument that at the one-minute frequency investors are able to incorporate new information in a fast and rationale manner and not suffer from the noise associated with the five-minute frequency. We also contribute to the e-commerce literature by demonstrating that zero-intelligence traders cannot reach market efficiency, therefore providing evidence against the hypothesis of Hayek (1945; 1968). One practical implication of this study is that we demonstrate that e-commerce practitioners can apply artificial intelligence tools such as STGP to conduct behaviour-based market profiling.     

“营改增”影响地方政府税收努力研究

基于随机前沿分析法（SFA）测算2011-2015年我国地方政府税收努力程度,并运用双重差分法考察“营改增”对地方征税行为的影响。研究发现：“营改增”将地方税（营业税）变为共享税（增值税）,显著降低了地方政府税收努力程度;改革对税收努力的冲击受经济发展水平、转移支付额度和税收返还的影响,获取转移支付收入和税收返还越多的地区税收努力下降速度越快。后“营改增”时期,如何提高税收效率,缓解地方财政收入对转移支付和债务收入的依赖性,是理顺中央和地方财税关系,完善财税收入体系的重要问题。     

“营改增”能否促进企业价值提升

"营改增"通过打通增值税抵扣链条、消除重复征税等,对企业税负降低和专业化分工会产生一定的促进作用,进而能够显著提升企业价值。而交通运输业由于"营改增"前后适用税率差异较大,且固定资产更新周期较长带来的进项抵扣不足,使得"营改增"对其企业价值的影响程度反而不及现代服务业。与私营企业相比,国有企业更容易受到政府政策干预或扶持,对税收政策的敏感性不及私营企业,即"营改增"对私营企业的企业价值的影响程度显著高于国有企业。鉴于"营改增"对企业价值的促进作用,国家应继续优化增值税体系,保持税收政策在促进企业价值提升时政策红利的延续性;在推行增值税改革的过程中,要增加配套税收优惠政策,以弥补政策效应对某些行业激励不足的短板;此外,要加快国有企业改革,营造公平的营商环境,促进税收中性原则的有效发挥。     

借鉴欧盟成员国经验完善促进农村经济发展的增值税制度

我国现行增值税在制度设计和税权划分上都存在着不完善之处,不利于农村经济的发展。本文在借鉴欧盟成员国增值税制度成功经验的基础上,探讨了如何完善促进我国农村经济发展的增值税制度,并提出了改进增值税共享政策的具体建议。     

跳开增值税专用发票行为的法律分析

跳开增值税专用发票尽管在形式上构成虚开行为,在内容上与真实交易不符,但该行为实质上是对增值税进项抵扣链条中由于税率"陷落"而产生的缺陷的修复,与税收中性原则相符,不会造成国家增值税收入实质性的损失,因而不具备税收执法与刑事司法上的可罚性。将跳开排除在虚开行为之外,需要对国家的增值税收入中各部分的正当性以及增值税专用发票管理制度的作用与目的进行重新思考,以确定国家享有的税收债权的范围,保障纳税人的限额纳税权,并且要在刑事司法领域对虚开增值税专用发票罪的犯罪构成和量刑依据进行统一。     

基于非寿险分析的营业税改增值税对保险业的影响研究

保险业并未纳入2012年“营改增”范围,但是我国现行保险业营业税制度滞后于我国保险业的发展,因此随着“营改增”试点的进展,保险业进行增值税改革将是大势所趋.本文拟通过借鉴新西兰的反计还原法,设置我国非寿险业增值税制度,运用数据模拟分析“营改增”对非寿险业的影响.     

扩大增值税抵扣范围后固定资产进项税额的会计处理

扩大增值税抵扣范围后,新增固定资产进项税额的会计处理,是试点范围内的企业不可回避的问题。本文根据扩大增值税抵扣范围的相关政策,结合现行的增值税会计处理制度,探讨了扩大增值税抵扣范围后新增固定资产进项税额的3种较为实用和操作性较强的会计处理方法。     

增值税征税范围的国际比较与思考

本文通过对国际上实施增值税国家的增值税征税范围的比较分析 ,指出我国现行增值税在征税范围上存在的对于农业和劳务处理方面的问题。提出借鉴外国增值税转型经验改革我国增值税制在征税范围上的规定 ,以完善我国增值税制度     

VAT attacks!

Like the theory of the second best that the 2006 congress marks, the value added tax (VAT) is now fifty years old. Judged by the extent and speed of its spread around the world, and the revenue that it raises, the VAT would seem to have been a remarkable success. Over the last few years, however, it has come under a series of attacks. This paper considers three of the most prominent of these. One is the fear (raised mainly in the United States) that the VAT actually does too good a job of raising tax revenue—which raises the empirical question of whether it has indeed proved as effective a source of revenue as its proponents claim and its opponents fear. The second is the view that the VAT does a bad job of taxing the informal sector—and that tariffs might consequently be a better revenue-raising instrument for many developing countries. The third attack is the most literal, by criminals rather than theorists: in the European Union and elsewhere, sophisticated VAT fraud, targeting its refund provisions, has become a serious concern. The paper also argues, more generally, that the many unanswered questions concerning the VAT reflect an unfortunate disconnect between the development of the tax itself and of second best tax analysis. I am grateful to Ben Lockwood and Stephen Smith for allowing me to draw on our joint work, and to Vidar Christiansen, Sijbren Cnossen, Isaias Coelho, Alain Jousten, Victoria Perry, and Emil Sunley for many helpful comments and suggestions. Views and errors remain mine alone, and should not be attributed to the International Monetary Fund.     

A proposal to apply the Kiwi-VAT to insurance services in the European Union

In the spirit of the European Commission’s call for a simpler, more robust and efficient VAT system, this article proposes to integrate exempt insurance services into the European VAT, and to abolish the discriminatory, excise-type insurance premium taxes levied by the various Member States. The current VAT exemption (no taxation of insurance services and no credit for the VAT on inputs) is administratively complex and economically distortionary. Instead, the value added of property and casualty insurance companies can be taxed on a transactions basis by applying the VAT to insurance premiums (creditable by VAT-liable businesses) and allowing a presumptive tax credit for the VAT imputable to payouts (plus a credit for the actual VAT on purchases). The presumptive tax credit should be taxed at the level of business recipients, but individuals would receive the VAT along with indemnity payments without having to file a return. Exceptionally, the tax-credit VAT would not be applied to life and health insurance premiums, but insurers would be taxed on an accounts basis on the sum of wages and business cash flow.     

Spillover effects of VAT Self-enforcement properties: Evidence based on the replacement of business tax with VAT reform

In accordance with the purchasing tax-deduction method and the receipt-based value added tax (VAT) system, the same transaction can be recorded by two firms, which creates self-enforcement properties, thereby restraining tax avoidance. Using the Replacement of Business Tax with VAT reform in China, this paper adopts a difference-in-differences design to investigate the spillover effects of VAT self-enforcement properties on corporate income tax avoidance by manually collating information about suppliers/clients of listed firms. As the listed firms' suppliers/clients switch from paying business tax to paying VAT, there is a striking decline in their corporate income tax avoidance behavior. This effect is pronounced in firms with closer upstream and downstream correlations, higher information complexity and stronger incentives for tax avoidance.     

增值税转型对企业融资约束的影响研究

本文基于2009年增值税转型改革,研究了后危机时代税制改革对企业融资约束的缓解作用。研究发现,增值税转型主要是通过对内源融资约束的缓解改善企业的融资约束,其政策效应呈逐年显现的状态。进一步研究发现,增值税转型对非国企融资约束的缓解作用强于国企;高管的金融背景越强,增值税转型对融资约束的缓解作用越大;企业所处地区的市场化程度越高,增值税转型对融资约束的缓解作用越明显。本文的研究不仅丰富了相关研究成果,拓展了宏观经济政策如何作用于微观企业、影响其财务行为的研究领域,结论对正在进行的营业税改征增值税的试点工作也具有一定参考价值。     

Ad Valorem Taxation on Intermediate Goods in Oligopoly

Thepaper compares the efficiency of value added taxation (VAT),in which intermediate goods are not taxed, with that of cascadetaxation, in which they are, when levied on imperfectly-competitivevertically-related industries. One type of commodity taxationis not always superior to the other in terms of welfare. Indeed,when intermediate-goods have close substitutes, VAT is the optimalcommodity tax system. But when input substitutability is weakor absent and input producers have market power, they shouldbe taxed. In fact, in the absence of lump sum taxes and withno input substitutability, it is optimal to tax, not to subsidize,the most monopolistic industry. True cascading, in which bothupstream and downstream industries are taxed, is thus betterthan VAT when, besides no input substitutability and both intermediateand final good producers with market power, the needed revenuerequirement is not small. We therefore submit a rationale forthe coexistence of VAT and cascade taxation.