Gender differences in trust and reciprocity: evidence from a large-scale experiment with heterogeneous subjects

This article examines gender differences in an experimental trust game. Recent studies have shown that men trust more and that women are more reciprocal in laboratory experiments. Participants in these studies, however, are typically university students who may not be representative of the entire population. In this study, we use data from a large-scale experiment with heterogeneous subjects who are representative of the German population. We find that men exhibit not only more trusting behaviour, but also more reciprocating behaviour than women. Moreover, our results are indicative of age-dependent gender differences. For men, we find an inverse U-shaped relationship between age, on the one hand, and both trust and reciprocity, on the other; however, we do not find age effects for women.     

性别视角下的社会资本研究述论

与男性相比,女性在社会资本特征及价值创造方面存在诸多差异,因此,在对社会资本问题进行研究过程中必须充分考虑到性别差异问题。在此基础上,还应该进一步深入考察这些差异给女性自身职业发展带来的实质性影响,只有如此,才有可能构建出更加有效的策略以提高女性的社会资本回报率。     

Gender differences in selection into self-competition

While previous studies demonstrated that, in many settings, women tend to be less willing than men to engage in interpersonal competition, this study focuses on selection into self-competition. Competing against own past performances can be an integral part of life, including job and sports. Using data obtained from a lab-in-the-field experiment, we find empirical evidence that women are, on average, more reluctant than men to compete against their own past performance. Our results suggest that this difference can be mainly explained by gender differences in risk preferences.     

“官二代”职业发展的性别差异--对第三期中国妇女社会地位调查的实证研究

"官二代"在负责人和专业技术人员中存在明显的职业性别隔离。只有极少数"官二代"能够成为负责人,而绝大部分"官二代"从事负责人以外的其他五类职业。工作变动及时代变迁使得"官二代"职业层次总体有所提高,但女性的提高程度小于男性。性别、受教育程度、政治面貌及工作获得途径对"官二代"能否成为负责人具有显著影响:女性成为负责人的可能性总体小于男性;接受过高等教育的男性更容易成为负责人,提高受教育程度对男性成为负责人的影响大于女性;求职/应聘能够显著提高女性成为负责人的可能性,党员身份和自主创业对女性成为负责人的影响大于男性。     

Not-So-Strong Evidence for Gender Differences in Risk Taking

Based on a growing body of experimental and other studies, two recent economics survey articles claim to find “strong evidence” that women are “fundamental[ly]” more risk-averse than men. Yet, much of the literature fails to clearly distinguish between differences that hold at the individual level (categorical differences between men and women) and patterns that appear only at the aggregate level (statistically detectable differences in men's and women's distributions, such as different means). There is a resulting problem of possible misinterpretation, as well as a dearth of appropriate attention to substantive significance. Additionally, one of the two surveys suffers from problems of statistical validity, possibly due to confirmation bias. Applying appropriate, expanded statistical techniques to the same data, this study finds substantial similarity and overlap between the distributions of men and women in risk taking, and a difference in means that is not substantively large.     

公众环境行为中的性别差异及其改变研究——基于2006年和2009年西安数据

依据邓拉普(Dunlap)的新环境范式理论,采用2006年和2009年横截面数据比较分析女性环境行为的现状和变迁。结果显示:现阶段中国公众环境行为没有明显的性别差异,与主流观点即女性具有更加积极的环保行为不一致。进一步分析了其中的原因,并在文章最后提出一些提升妇女参与环保行为的对策建议。     

The Relationship between Behavioral and Attitudinal Trust: A Cross-cultural Study

We study the relationship between trust in an experiment and trust measured by means of popular survey items in different countries. Students from Chile, Colombia, India, Mexico and Sweden participate in a public goods game experiment and answer a set of standard attitudinal survey questions about trust. We find that behavioral trust and attitudinal trust significantly differ among countries. Behavioral trust is highest in Sweden, followed by Latin America, and lowest in India. Attitudinal trust is highest in Chile and Sweden, followed by India and Mexico, and lowest in Colombia. Further, the predictive power of survey items also differs among countries. Trust measured by survey items is significantly related to behavioral trust in some but not in all societies. No single survey item predicts actual trust across all countries. Plausible explanations of the inconsistent relationship between behavioral and attitudinal trust across countries are discussed.     

Gender Differences in Educational Attainment: Evidence on the Role of Tracking from a Finnish Quasi‐experiment

In this paper we study the relationship between the timing of tracking of pupils into vocational and academic secondary education and gender differences in educational attainment and income. It is argued that in a comprehensive system, where students are tracked into vocational and academic schools relatively late (age 15–16), girls are more likely to choose the academic track than boys. We exploit the Finnish comprehensive school reform of the 1970s to analyse this hypothesis. This changed the Finnish school system from a selective to a comprehensive structure and postponed tracking from the age of 10–11 to 15–16. Since the reform was not implemented at the same time throughout the country, we can observe members of the same cohorts under both systems. The shift to a comprehensive system was found to increase gender differences in the probability of choosing an academic secondary education and of continuing onto academic tertiary education. Moreover, the reform decreased the gender wage gap in adult income by four percentage points.     

性别文化构建中语气标记语使用差异的语用分析

语言使用和性别差异的研究课题一直被语言学家所钟爱。从20世纪60年代起,他们围绕着语言与社会文化,从词汇、称谓、哲学等层面对性别歧视或性别差异进行了大量的研究,但却极少涉及语用层面。从语用的角度,深入探讨语言中普遍存在的语气标记语在不同性别中的运用,并对其语用功能做出分析。     

Gender Differences in Economic Knowledge: A Reevaluation of the Evidence

This study examines the importance and significance of male-female differences in understanding and learning economics and attempts to assess whether the use of multiple choice questions, rather than essay questions, contributes to these measured differences. Do multiple choice questions favor men with their possibly superior spatial and numerical skills? Do essay questions favor women with their possibly superior verbal skills? Evidence based on a study involving 589 students using an examination including both types of questions is analyzed in this article.     

Gender Norms and the Gendered Distribution of Total Work in Latin American Households

This study uses time-use survey data for Mexico, Peru, and Ecuador (from 2009, 2010, and 2012, respectively) to analyze differences between countries in terms of the gendered distribution of total work, which includes both paid and unpaid work. It explores whether the variations in the total time worked by women and men, and, particularly, the gender gap unfavorable to women, can be explained by substantive national differences in gendered social norms. Using data from the World Values Survey (WVS; 2010–14), this study computes a gender norms index to measure cross-country differences in gender norms. It finds that more egalitarian countries exhibit higher levels of equality in the gendered distribution of total work.     

管理因素对电子商务信用风险的影响研究

电子商务信用风险已成为电子商务进一步发展的主要障碍,影响电子商务信用风险的因素是多种多样的,这些因素的影响机理也是复杂的。分析了管理因素对电子商务信用风险的影响机理;比较两种管理因素对电子商务信用风险的影响效果。     

The Many Dimensions of Gender Equality and Their Impact on Economic Growth

This study explores the multidimensional nature of gender equality and its influence on economic growth across 64 countries from 2000–2011 using an endogenous growth model. After controlling for standard growth correlates, the empirical results show that countries that protect the economic rights of women experience higher real GDP per capita growth rates. Furthermore, after controlling for a country’s religious affiliation, the importance of religion to the lives of people living in a country had a negative influence on economic growth. Intensely held religious beliefs are strongly correlated with gender inequitable views. These attitudes might serve as an important channel through which these gender biases are institutionalized in economic practices and act to slow economic growth.     

郑州都市区镇域经济差异的空间分析

以镇域为研究单元,以经济综合发展指数为测度指标,采用GIS空间分类、ESDA等空间分析技术,根据区域经济差异的相关理论,分析2006-2010年郑州都市区镇域经济空间格局变化特征.结果表明:经济空间格局总体呈“轴带+市区”的空间扩散态势;第一、第四级水平的乡镇变动幅度大,中等层级水平的乡镇变动不明显;经济发达地区和落后地区存在空间集聚效应,2006-2010年之间High-High区、Low-Low区分别增加6、7个,High-Low区由18个骤减至9个,Low-High区小幅减至14个,乡镇经济整体与局部协调发展的局面尚未形成.基于研究结果从区位条件、宏观政策、经济社会发展条件、中心城区的规模与竞争力等方面进行驱动因素分析,进而提出突出乡镇主导优势产业、实施差别化发展政策、加强集镇区规划建设、促进城乡一体化发展、提升中心城区竞争力等具体对策建议.     

鄱阳湖流域区域经济差异研究

鄱阳湖流域占江西省国土面积的97.2%,分别由赣、抚、信、饶、修五河流域和鄱阳湖区组成。为了分析鄱阳湖流域区域经济差异,以县为单位,将全流域国土面积分别划归五河流域和鄱阳湖区。根据不同流域的区域发展条件,在分析全流域区域经济发展差异的基础上,用锡尔系数对鄱阳湖流域经济差异进行空间分解,揭示差异形成的原因和基本规律,为统筹区域经济发展服务。     

Welfare as We [Don't] Know It: A Review and Feminist Critique of Welfare Reform Research in the United States

Reform of the United States welfare system in 1996 drastically changed welfare receipt for low-income lone mothers. This paper explores the effects of these changes on lone mothers by summarizing empirical work on caseload reduction, labor force participation, income, poverty, material hardship, and family formation. While it appears that the economic status of many lone mothers improved during the economic expansion in the late 1990s, many lone mothers continued to experience poverty and material hardship. Building on the work of feminist scholars from both the US and other countries, this paper goes on to critique mainstream research on welfare reform. It identifies a particularly feminist approach to welfare reform research, stresses its advantages over mainstream research, and speculates about why there is comparatively less feminist research to date. The paper concludes by calling for more structural analyses of poverty and of lone motherhood itself.     

Self‐Directed Pensions: Gender,Risk, and Portfolio Choices*

In this paper, I investigate gender differences in financial risk‐taking from a new perspective, and I show that gender plays a different role across the risk distribution. To evaluate risk‐taking, I exploit portfolio choices following a reform that entitles almost the entire Swedish workforce to choose a risk profile for a part of their public‐pension contributions. The novel finding is that portfolio risk does not differ much between the men and women who choose less risky portfolios, while the men who choose risky portfolios take on significantly more risk than do the women who choose risky portfolios. The findings are robust to investors choosing the default alternative, chasing past returns, rebalancing, and different measures of risk‐taking.     

工作家庭匹配影响因素性别差异研究

工作家庭匹配领域的研究是在工作家庭冲突理论的基础上发展演变而来。根据已有工作家庭匹配相关研究文献,提出了研究的三个假设,探讨了工作家庭匹配水平的性别差异,并分男性和女性两类共260个样本,考察了未满足的工作灵活性期望、社会支持和工作家庭的溢出交叉影响对工作家庭匹配的影响。未满足的工作灵活性期望和上司支持对男性和女性的工作家庭匹配均有显著的影响;配偶支持对男性有显著的正影响,但对女性没有发现类似的影响;工作向家庭的溢出对女性的工作家庭匹配有显著的负影响,但对男性没有发现类似的影响。     

进城农村劳动力代际差异的实证研究

选取18个能够综合反映农民工群体的工作、生活、社会保障和主观意愿等生存现状的指标,利用统计分析方法构建进城农村劳动力生存现状影响因素的因子模型,集中分析各个因素对进城农村劳动力现状的影响程度及其在进城农村劳动力总体代际和性别差异上的表现。实证研究的结果表明:第二代农民工在工作因素、进城动机、主观诉求等方面都与第一代农民工有着较大区别,工作稳定性、身份歧视等因素对第二代农民工的影响有着不同于事先预期的结果。