基于财务报表的汇率管理策略浅析

正汇率风险产生于经济主体的跨货币交易行为。基于会计报表视角而言,汇率变化造成企业外币资产与负债、收入与支出等会计报表项目在转化为本币时其实际价值发生变动,从而可能使该经济主体蒙受经济损失或丧失期待利益。资产负债表中外币资产和外币负债的错配是汇率风险产生的根源,汇率波动引起的利润表中利润的波动是汇率风险的外在表现,汇率风险在现金流量表中则表现为外币流入与外币流出的失衡,从而对公司的实际运营造成影响。     

汇率变动对企业价值的影响例析

现在众多企业跨国经营已是一个普遍现象，国际贸易、间接投资、直接投资等国际经济活动都会引起企业外币（有时可能有很多种）资产和负债的形成及增减变动。但是在编制财务报表和估价企业价值时，应该以企业母公司所在国的货币为单位，而不能使用几种不同的货币单位。否则，一国居民就难以估价企业的价值，进而影响到他们做投资决定。企业将外币科目余额折算成以本币计的余额时，有流动和非流动法、货币和非货币法、时态法以及现行汇率法。由于在不同的方法中，使用折算日汇率进行折算的会计科目不同，因此采用不同的折算，外汇折算的损益是…     

外币业务汇兑损益及其会计处理

外币业务是以企业记账本位币以外的货币进行款项收付、往来结算和计价的经济业务，我国企业外币业务的账务处理一般采用外币统账制，即在发生外币业务时必须及时折算为记账本位币入账。企业在持有外币货币性资产和负债期间，由于外币汇率变动，会引起外币货币性资产或负债的价值发生变动，从而产生汇兑损益。企业需要对发生的外币业务汇兑损益进行确认、计量和正确核算，并分析汇率变动对企业利润的影响，这是会计准则对企业会计核算的基本要求。     

外币·本币·外国货币

外币 ,是本币的对应概念 ,是指能够自由兑换的境外货币。在我国大陆 ,人民币是唯一法定的货币 ,称为本币 ,除人民币外其它货币均不能在大陆流通。因为其它货币都是外来的 ,相当部分是外国的 ,有些则是某地区如港、澳、台的 ,它们通称为———外币。这可以从中国人民银行每天公布的人民币对美元、欧元、日元、港币等的市场汇价中 ,也将港币称为外币 ,就是证明。外币·本币·外国货币@丁松     

企业在国际贸易中的外汇风险

汇率风险 在国际贸易交往中，必然涉及到不同国家的不同货币，本国货币（即本币）与外国货币（即外币）、外币与外币之间的折算问题。从宏观经济来看：一个国家外汇汇率的变化直接影响其进出口商品的价格；国家间经常性大规模经济交往必然引起外汇的大量使用，因此，外汇问题成了国际经济交往中一个极其重要的问题。从     

外币分账制核算的账表衔接

本文中使用的名词定义如下：（1）记账本位币，简称本位币，是指企业根据其经营所处主要经济环境所选择的、用于通用计价或结算手段的货币种类；（2）外币，指本位币以外的货币；（3）外币交易，以外币进行计价、结算的交易事项；（4）货币性项目，指企业负债项目和现金、存款、应收账款、贷款等货币及将以固定或可确定金额的货币收取的资产项目；（5）非货币性项目，指各类会计要素中除货币性项目以外的项目；（6）外币分账制，是指将不同币种分别记人仅以总账科目、各种货币名称和金额设置的账户、基本外币账户中始终不记录本位币的一种外币记账方法。     

防范会计风险

一个跨国公司如果不只在一个国家和货币区域进行经营活动，并且现金收付也不只使用一种货币，那么，它就面临着外汇敞口的会计风险（指感受风险的部分）问题。由于汇率变动，外汇敞口可能引起损失。随着当今经济全球化进程加快，这种风险越来越大。会计风险是指在编制合并报表把子公司以外币计价的财务会计报表转换成以母公司记账本位币计价时，由于外币资产与外币债务不相匹配而引起的损益变化，所以又称损益表风险。例如，英国一家跨国公司在美国设立一家子公司。该跨国公司拥有美元资产，倘若没有足够的美元债务来抵销美元资产，它就面临…     

货币替代和反替代对我国汇率影响的实证研究

货币替代和反替代会影响一国汇率政策的有效性和汇率的决定.我国目前货币替代和货币反替代并存,其中货币替代的程度呈现不断下降的趋势,而货币反替代的程度则不断增强.选取2001Q1-2011Q4之间的相关数据为研究样本,通过构建包含货币替代和货币反替代的粘性价格货币模型,实证检验了我国货币替代和货币反替代对人民币汇率的影响程度.结果发现:货币替代和货币反替代都会影响到我国的汇率,进而会降低我国汇率政策的有效性,但货币反替代的影响更加强烈.     

外币交易会计核算的若干问题

赁币计价是会计核算的基本前提之一，会计核算需要通过货币这样一个统一的度量尺度来实现对企业的财务状况和经营成果的综合、全面、系统的反映。当发生本国货币交易时无疑以人民币作为计量尺度；但当涉及本国以外的其他国家的货币时，即出现外币交易，显然就面临着两种或多种计量尺度的选择。随着经济的全球化，有关外币交易的会计核算也日显重要。 　　如果企业选定本国货币作为报告货币，作为统一的货币计量单位，就必须将外币交易中原始的计量单位——外币折算为本国货币，在会计记录中作出双重反映。事实上，企业也只有将外币折算为报…     

外币分账制核算的账表衔接

本文中使用的名词定义如下：（1）记账本位币，简称本位币，是指企业根据其经营所处主要经济环境所选择的、用于通用计价或结算手段的货币种类；（2）外币，指本位币以外的货币；（3）外币交易，以外币进行计价、结算的交易事项；（4）货币性项目，     

China's entry to the WTO: managerial implications for foreign banks

This paper shows that particular attributes of foreign banks, viz. size of assets, number of branches, and links to the Asian network, have significant impacts on their decision to engage in business transactions in China's domestic currency, Renminbi. Access to these markets will expand upon China's entry to the WTO and these attributes will also help the foreign bank to manage liquidity and credit risks more effectively when dealing with their Chinese customers. Other foreign banks without these attributes will have to adopt aggressive employment policies or restrict themselves to providing services to joint ventures in China. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Entry of foreign banks in Shanghai: implications for business strategies in an increasingly competitive market

This paper uses a simple mean‐variance choice model as the basis of a duration analysis of the factors determining the decision of a foreign bank to establish a branch in Shanghai, the fast developing financial centre in China. Bank attributes, namely region of origin, parent bank size, the number of international branches and their branch network in China, have a significant impact on the time to entry. A country's share of total foreign direct investment in Shanghai also significantly affects the entry decision. The attributes facilitating entry also provide the foreign bank with a competitive advantage in its foreign currency transactions in Shanghai. However, with the ensuing market liberalisations after China's WTO accession, the entrants' competitiveness may not be sustained in the local currency market, especially following the proactive business strategies of Chinese banks and the protectionist measures of the government. It is expected that only a small number of the entrants will be able to emerge as big market players in the growing domestic currency market in Shanghai. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Exchange rates, tax-subsidy schemes, and the revenue from foreign trade in a centrally planned economy

Conclusions It has been argued that while in the traditional analysis of the classic CPE the exchange rate has only an accounting function, inappropriate methods of national income accounting can lead to changes in the exchange rate generating changes in the real economy, provided that trade in unbalanced in foreign currency prices. This thesis was explored by examining the way the profits from foreign trade were calculated by the Ministry of Foreign Trade, and then transferred to the state budget. It was shown that the correct measure of the state's increased command over domestic resources from engaging in foreign trade, derived from the implicit taxes on that sector, was the ministry's profits on its domestic operations, the first term in (2). However, evidence was presented which suggested that its profits on foreign currency account measured in domestic currency, the second term in (2), were also passed over to the state budget. This implies that transferred profits from foreign trade will overstate the underlying command over resources when there is a balance of payments surplus, and understate them when there is a deficit. The consequence of this is that the domestic economy faces a series of erratic, though small, inflationary and deflationary impulses, regardless of changes in the exchange rate.The theoretical role of the preisausleich system was explored in some detail and it was argued that, although the system has been designed to insulate the domestic economy from external disturbances, there were clear reasons why it had come to play a major part in revenue raising. Specifically, it is administratively convenient to tax resources at their point of entry into or exit from the economy; the taxation of foreign trade widens the tax base and reduces the visibility of the tax system. But, of course, this grafting onto the preisausgleich of a second major function of revenue raising does lead to the development of a further channel through which external disturbances can pass into the domestic economy. That is external disturbances impact on the domestic economy not only through the production and welfare effects of changing exports and imports, and through whatever tenuous links are allowed between foreign and domestic prices, but also insofar as those disturbances affect the ministry's profits from foreign trade. In short, foreign economic disturbances show up in variations in the position of the non-inflationary government budget constraint. To that extent the second function of the preisausgleich impairs its ability to perform its original insulation function. In a minor way, the successful non-inflationary performance of the insulation function has always required adjustments in the government budget constraint. But the growth in the importance of foreign trade taxation has magnified the importance of this phenomenon, and led to a trade-off between the two functions.University of Bath. Initial research for this paper was carried out under ESRC grant HRP 7417/1.     

Reverse speculative attacks

In January 2015, in the face of sustained capital inflows, the Swiss National Bank abandoned the floor for the Swiss Franc against the Euro, a decision which led to the appreciation of the Swiss Franc. The objective of this paper is to present a simple numerical framework that helps to better understand the timing of this episode, which we label a “reverse speculative attack”. We model a central bank which wishes to maintain a peg, and responds to increases in demand for domestic currency by expanding its balance sheet. In contrast to the classic speculative attacks, which are triggered by the depletion of foreign assets, reverse attacks are triggered by the concern of future balance sheet losses. Our key result is that the interaction between the desire to maintain the peg and the concern about future losses, can lead the central bank to first accumulate a large amount of reserves, and then to abandon the peg, just as we have observed in the Swiss case.     

对我国股份制公司交叉持股的探讨

文章指出,上市公司交叉持股带来的股权投资增值,意味着这些交叉持股公司面临价值重估机遇,尤其是一些持有大量流通股的公司,由于变现能力强,也易于在公司业绩中得到体现。据新会计准则,上市公司交叉持股的股权将由成本法统计改成权益法统计,这将极大增加上市公司的价值,这些股权将出现在"交易性金融资产"、"可供出售金融资产"、"持有至到期投资"3个新的会计科目中。     

On the determinants of foreign ownership shares: Evidence from US firms' joint ventures in Japan

It is often argued that firms' foreign expansion is motivated by economies of scale in information-based intangible assets. Since these assets are combined with local factors in real production, their owner often has to deal with local factor owners' opportunistic behavior such as siphoning of skills which reduces the return on intangibles to the original owner. Local factor owners' agency behavior can also reduce a subsidiary's profit. Maintaining ownership mitigates the former type of opportunistic behavior, while ceding ownership reduces the latter type. Hence there is a non-linear relationship between ownership and the cost of control. In this paper we present a model that incorporates these aspects of a joint venture ownership. In our model the share in a joint venture of a foreign parent firm with a superior technology is determined such that its marginal cost of control is set equal to the marginal benefit it derives from a joint venture. We assume that, because of the uniqueness and mobility of its intangible factor, the foreign partner has more bargaining power than its local counterpart regarding the ownership of their joint venture and that the local partner is less concerned than its foreign counterpart about the problems of agency and property rights protection because of its geographic and cultural proximity to the joint venture. As a consequence, the foreign partner is able to exert its preference for its ownership share in the joint venture. Our theoretical results allow a decomposition of ownership share into components explained by the cost of control and by the profitability of a joint venture. Our empirical results using data on technology-based US firms' subsidiaries in Japan are consistent with our model predictions. In particular, the fraction of ownership share explained by the cost of control relative to the fraction explained by intrinsic profitability is higher for industries that rely more heavily on intangible assets, as expected from the model.     

Currency Mismatching

This paper considers a firm domiciled in an emerging market, modeling its decision to denominate its debt in a combination of its domestic currency and a foreign currency, that is, the dollar. The objective is to determine those situations when the firm is motivated to engage in currency mismatching, that is, denominating a higher percentage of its debt in dollars than what is warranted by its dollar‐denominated sales. The following factors are shown to induce greater currency mismatching: speculative capital flows into the emerging market, reduced ability to price discriminate between domestic and foreign customers, increased exchange rate stability, and lower risk‐aversion. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Liquidity constrained exporters

I propose a model of international trade with liquidity constraints. If firms must pay a fixed entry cost in order to access foreign markets, and if they face liquidity constraints to finance these costs, only those firms that have sufficient liquidity are able to export. A set of firms could profitably export, but are prevented from doing so because they lack sufficient liquidity. More productive firms that generate large liquidity from their domestic sales, and wealthier firms that inherit a large amount of liquidity, are more likely to export. This model offers a potential explanation for the apparent lack of sensitivity of exports to exchange rate fluctuations. When the exchange rate appreciates, existing exporters lose competitiveness abroad, and are forced to reduce their exports. At the same time, the value of domestic assets owned by potential exporters increases. Some liquidity constrained exporters start exporting. This dampens the anti-competitiveness impact of a currency appreciation. Under some conditions, it may reverse it altogether and increase aggregate exports. In this sense, the model is able to rationalize the co-existence of competitive devaluations and competitive revaluations.     

Model‐free evaluation of directional predictability in foreign exchange markets

We examine directional predictability in foreign exchange markets using a model‐free statistical evaluation procedure. Based on a sample of foreign exchange spot rates and futures prices in six major currencies, we document strong evidence that the directions of foreign exchange returns are predictable not only by the past history of foreign exchange returns, but also the past history of interest rate differentials, suggesting that the latter can be a useful predictor of the directions of future foreign exchange rates. This evidence becomes stronger when the direction of larger changes is considered. We further document that despite the weak conditional mean dynamics of foreign exchange returns, directional predictability can be explained by strong dependence derived from higher‐order conditional moments such as the volatility, skewness and kurtosis of past foreign exchange returns. Moreover, the conditional mean dynamics of interest rate differentials contributes significantly to directional predictability. We also examine the co‐movements between two foreign exchange rates, particularly the co‐movements of joint large changes. There exists strong evidence that the directions of joint changes are predictable using past foreign exchange returns and interest rate differentials. Furthermore, both individual currency returns and interest rate differentials are also useful in predicting the directions of joint changes. Several sources can explain this directional predictability of joint changes, including the level and volatility of underlying currency returns. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.