RISK EVALUATION IN FARM PLANNING* A STATISTICAL APPROACH

Economic planning implies decision-making based on the comparison of alternative courses of action, viewed against a background (in the real world at any rate) of uncertainty and imperfect knowledge. Successful planning is thus heavily dependent on the reliability of prediction which lea & inevitably to the domain of probability theory and its application to planning models. In spite of the considerable attention given to the application of mathematical models in farm management research work in recent times⁽¹⁾ to⁽⁹⁾ and ⁽¹⁵⁾ there is stilla paucity of applied work with respect to evaluating the nature of risk associated with planning projects at the individual farm level. In addition, very little published data is available on either a regional or production-type basis that gives a clear understanding of the nature of probability distributions for planning variables. This paper formulates a simple model which can be used in practical planning exercises and also demonstrates that with a new generation of statistically-processed planning data the application of the classical concepts of probability to routine economic planning is both practicable and worthwhile.     

THE INTEGRATED USE OF SIMULATION AND STOCHASTIC PROGRAMMING FOR WHOLE FARM PLANNING UNDER RISK*

Methods of whole-farm planning under risk are briefly reviewed, noting especially associated operational problems. A planning problem relating to spatial diversification of beef production in the Clarence region of N.S.W. is investigated using a model comprising both simulation and linear programming components. It is concluded that such composite models are valuable for the analysis of sequential stochastic decision processes not presently amenable to solution by stochastic programming alone.     

RISK AND FARM SIZE IN THE PASTORAL ZONE

Variable performance over time is an important feature of wool growing in the eastern pastoral zone of Australia. An analysis of time series data from the Australian Sheep Industry Survey indicates that standard deviation of net farm income is related more or less linearly to size of firm and increases with size at about the same rate as does average net income. A tentative conclusion is drawn that large farms have had a slight tendency to experience less variable rates of return than small farms. However, it is found that farms that have experienced relatively variable returns have tended to enjoy average rates of return above those of other farms of similar size.     

A NEGATIVE INCOME TAX AND LOW INCOME FARM FAMILIES*

An efficient procedure is proposed for making welfare payments to low income farm families. This is a negative income tax. It uses the income tax system for linking directly transfer payments to income needs, without unduly adverse effects on resource allocation. The negative income tax proposal is considered in relation to rural adjustment and reconstruction.     

区域休闲农业旅游开发的风险评价——以浙江省为例

风险是区域休闲农业旅游开发不可回避与亟待探究的问题。为深化区域休闲农业旅游开发风险的认识与实践,研究以休闲农业旅游开发较为成熟的典型地浙江省为案例,运用数据包络与因子分析方法,在对区域休闲农业旅游开发当前效率与未来潜力进行评价与分析的基础上,借助合图法以效率与潜力为聚类指标,通过两者比较对浙江省休闲农业旅游开发风险进行整体分析和评价,并将其划分为休闲农业旅游低风险积极开发、较低风险适宜开发、一般风险适度开发和较高风险整合开发等4类区域。最后,总结浙江省休闲农业旅游开发风险特征为:(1)开发风险与区域经济发展水平和区位优势条件存在明显的相关关系;(2)区域间经济社会相关联系程度影响开发风险分布方向;(3)开发水平在空间上存在较强的收敛性特征,并从中提炼出明确区域休闲农业旅游开发方向、营造良好区域交流与合作环境和构建区域休闲农业旅游开发风险协同管理机制等开发风险规避策略。     

RISK PERCEPTION AND THE ANALYSIS OF RISK ATTITUDES*

Risk has long been recognised as an important feature of the environment facing farmers. In recent years the von Neumann-Morgenstern expected utility theory has been used to analyse decision making under risk. However, many people behave in a manner inconsistent with the expected utility theory. One widely suggested explanation is based on subjective probability distortion. A number of attempts to incorporate this phenomenon into utility theories have been made. In this paper, the problems of analysing subjective probability distortion are discussed. Evidence from a survey of farmers' risk attitudes undertaken in conjunction with the 1977 BAE Australian Agricultural and Grazing Industries Survey is analysed in the light of this discussion.     

FARM ADJUSTMENT AND THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT*

The problem of low income farms in Australia is examined in a dynamic context of overall farm adjustment. It is suggested that the pace of agricultural adjustment has been and is too slow, in the light of current and prospective market and cost trends. Consideration is given to both the case for, and the possibilities of, government action and the relationship of on?-farm adjustment to the adjustment needs of the economic and the social infrastructure on the agricultural sector.     

THE INCOME AND CONSUMPTION EXPERIENCES OF A SAMPLE OF FARM FAMILIES*

The way in which the consumption of farm families is adjusted to fluctuations in income has important implications at the national, regional and farm levels. In this paper, hypotheses about the consumption of farm families are examined using data from 16 families in a wheat-sheep region of New South Wales for the eight-year period 1968/69 to 1975/76. The results of the study indicate that lagged effects are important in explaining consumption by farm households. It was not possible to partition these lag effects between partial adjustment and normal income influences. Estimates of the short-run (one-year) marginal propensity to consume (mpc) were quite low, ranging from 0.13 to 0.16. The best estimates of the long-run mpc ranged from 0.19 to 0.25.     

RISK,UTILITY AND STOCKING RATE*

A simple utility-based model of risky wool production is presented. Evaluation of the model indicates the effect on optimal stocking rate of changes in the degree of risk aversion, farm area, variable cost, fixed cost, wool cut, wool price, variance of wool price, climatic variability and tax rate. It is shown that the utility hypothesis implies a lower optimal stocking rate than does expected profit maximization and hence implies a discrepancy between private and public optimal resource use which it is suggested, might be mitigated by a progressive bounty on wool production.     

FARM FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT: EMERGING PROBLEMS*

It is unlikely that the changes giving rise to the need for more attention to the agricultural finance areas will slow down in the foreseeable future. Financial parameters will be the major determinants of the entrepreneurial independence of family size and large food and natural fiber producers. The financial problems already confronting farming are numerous and complex, and the task ahead for the agricultural economists is great since time cannot be neutral in its effect if progress is to be achieved.     

MANAGEMENT GAMES AND THE TEACHING OF FARM MANAGEMENT*1

The concept of a farm management game is explained, and the relationships between simulation, games and Monte Carlo techniques are discussed. The potential role of farm management games in improving the teaching of farm management is reviewed. The management game is presented as a dynamic case study.     

MANAGEMENT ADVICE,PRODUCTION FUNCTIONS AND SMALL FARM GROUPS*

This article gives some results of production function studies carried out on small groups of farms. The results indicate that such studies can produce useful suggestions for farm reorganisation even when only 20 farms constitute the sample. Since service centres are being set up in Australia to help advise farmer groups or samples of this size, production function studies on the material provided may be unexpectedly rewarding.     

A CROSS-SECTION ANALYSIS OF FARM HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURES*

Many policy problems urgently require research on rural household consumption patterns. Research implications of consumption function theory are outlined and results of a cross-section analysis of eleven expenditure categories are reported. Consumption function parameters are estimated by least squares of multiple regression of farm account data. The analysis illustrates that changes in annuitized value of assets are associated with changes in budget allocations supporting the concept of a “lifetime” income effect on consumer behaviour. Second, the farm households sampled have a low marginal as well as average propensity to consume. Third, structure explanatory variables such as age distribution and size vary in their ability to explain expenditure patterns depending upon types of commodity. Further work will help to assess the impact of additional forces upon the standard of living of farm people. UNEANAL YSE RECOUPEE DE LA CONSOMMATION DOMESTIQUE R URALE Plusieurs problèmes de politique demandent des recherches urgentes sur les tendances de la consommation domestique rurale. Les implications de la recherche sur la théorie de la fonction de la consommation sont exposées et les résultats ?une analyse recoupee des onze catégories de dépenses sont présentés. Les paramétres de la fonction de la consommation sont évalués par les moindres carrés de la régression multiple des données du compte agricole. ?analyse démontre que les changements dans la valeur viagère des biens sont associés aux change-ments dans les allocations budgétaires à?appui du concept de ?effet ?un revenu “à vie” sur la façon ?agir du consommateur. Deuxièmement, les foyers agricoles échantillonnés ont une tendance à la consommation très marginale aussi bien que moyenne. Troisièmement, les variables explicatifs de la structure, tels que la répartition par âge et la taille, valient dans leur abilité?expliquer les tendances des dépenses selon le genre de denrées. Des travaux additionnels aideront àévahier ?effet de forces supplémentaires sur le niveau de vie des agriculteurs.     

SIMULATED MARKETS,FARM STRUCTURE,AND AGRICULTURAL POLICIES*

In this investigation estimated relationships of resource markets for United States agriculture are used in a simulation model to study resource demand and farm income under three conditions: (a) those actually prevailing, including the historic mix of agricultural policies, (b) with technical change in agriculture only half the rate realized, and (c) with a free market. The results indicate that compared with “actual” conditions the environment of slow technical change would have modest effects in slowing the demand for farm machinery and the migration of labor from agriculture. It also would result in greater net farm income in the 1960's. A free market would be accompanied by increased investment in farm machinery and a greater exodus of family and hired labor from agriculture. It also would result in a smaller farm building investment and a considerable reduction of farm income. Since economic conditions are so similar in both countries, the implications of these findings are related to Canadian agriculture on the assumption the same model would show the same outcomes for Canada. Dans cette étude, des rapports estimés des marchés des ressources pour ?agriculture des Etats-Uns sont employés dans un modéle de simulation afin ?étudier la demande des ressources et le revenu agricol net sous trois conditions: (a) celle qui régne réellement, incluant le mélange historique de politiques agricoles; (b) celle qui ne montre le changement technique de ?agriculture qti à la moitié du train realise; et (c) celle qui profite ?un marché libre. Les résultats indiquent que ?enrironnement du changement technique modéré, quand il est compareé avec les conditions réelles, produirait des effets modestes en diminuant la demande pour des machines agricoles et en ralentissant ?exode de la main-?oeuvre de ?agriculture. En outre, cet environment aurait pour résultat un revenu agricole net plus fort dans les années de 1060 à 1970. Vne marché libre serait accompangne de placements augmentés dans les machines agricoles et ?un plus grand exode de la main ?oeuvre familiale et salariée de ?agriculture. Aussi, ceci aboutirait à un investissement moindre dans la construction rurale et à une réduction considérable du revenu agricole. Puisque les conditions économiques des deux pays sont si ressemblantes, les implications de ces conclusions sont rattachées à?agriculture cana-dienne en supposant que le même modéle montrerait les mêmes résultats pour le Canada.     

STABILISATION AND RISK REDUCTION IN AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURE*

Agricultural producers typically are faced with risk about the yields they will experience and the prices they will receive. Stabilisation schemes can spread risk and thereby reduce the risk faced by individual producers. The risk-reducing capacity of a scheme and the cost of risk reduction depend upon the design of the scheme. In particular, it is important to distinguish between risk and instability. A classification of scheme designs is presented to bring out the effects of various design types. Schemes for the wheat industry are given most attention.