Evaluating the impact of agricultural extension on farms' performance in Crete: a nonneutral stochastic frontier approach

This article attempts to integrate the production‐ and the efficiency‐based approaches for evaluating the impact of extension on farms' performance. For this purpose the nonneutral production frontier model is used, and the empirical analysis refers to a sample of farms from Crete, Greece. The empirical results support the proposed formulation instead of either the production‐ or the efficiency‐based formulations as extension was found to have a statistically significant effect on closing both the technology and management gaps. Public and private extension services were found to be competitive in the production function and complementary in the technical inefficiency effect function. In addition, farms using both public and private extension services achieved a higher degree of technical efficiency than those using either public or private extension services, and farms with no extension services were found to be the least efficient.     

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF FARM ACCOUNTS

With the development of farm management extension services in Australia, a need has arisen for an analytical technique which can be handled by extension officers and readily comprehended by farmers. Inter farm comparison met this need at a similar stage of development in the United States and United Kingdom, and its application to Australian conditions is discussed. Comparative analysis is presented as an integral feature of farm management accounting.     

EXTENSION ECONOMICS—THE NEXT TEN YEARS1

In summary, let me emphasize a few highlights of the subject—Extension Economics—the next ten years.

• 1 Changing farm problems will require major adjustments by agriculture and its advisors.
• 2 Structural reform in farming and marketing arrangements of one kind or another will lead these adjustments.
• 3 Clientele of extension economists will include producers (in two basic groups), agri-business, non-agricultural rural residents and consumers.
• 4 Our approach should be on the basis of educators and we must keep up-to-date in the teaching methods and media used. Agricultural extension could logically become the center for a new broad program of continuing adult education.
• 5 Subject matter areas of concern to the economist must be broadened to actively include marketing, processing and public affairs.
• 6 A sound program of physical and economic research must be provided as a companion to effective extension work. Greater collaboration is necessary—both ways.
• 7 Personnel for extension economics will be forthcoming only if salary adjustments are made and university curricula revised to better train extension people.
• 8 Extension economists must use care and diplomacy in their relationships with University, Federal and Provincial officials.
• 9 We still have responsibility to more completely demonstrate the usefulness of our knowledge to other extension workers, administrators, and the farm public. Recognition must also be given to working closely with advisors in agri-business and private consulting firms.
• 10 Program evaluation, internal and external, are essential for a healthy program in extension economics.

     

Measuring public agricultural research and extension and estimating their impacts on agricultural productivity: new insights from U.S. evidence

This article provides new estimates of the marginal product of public agricultural research and extension on state agricultural productivity for the U.S., using updated data and definitions, and forecasts of future agricultural productivity growth by state. The underlying rationale for a number of important decisions that underlie the data used in cost‐return estimates for public agricultural research and extension are presented. The parameters of the state productivity model are estimated from a panel of contiguous U.S. 48 states from 1970 to 2004. Public research and extension are shown to be substitutes rather than complements. The econometric model of state agricultural TFP predicts growth rates of TFP for two‐thirds of states that is less than the past trend rate. The results and data indicate a real social rate of return to public investments in agricultural research of 67% and to agricultural extension of 100+%. The article concludes with guidance for TFP analyses in other countries.     

INTEGRATED DECISION RULES AS FARM MANAGEMENT TOOLS IN SMALLHOLDER AGRICULTURE IN MALAWI

Integrated decision rules in small-holder farm management provide an analytical approach which may encourage more effective communication in farmer-extension-research dialogue and thus facilitate the development of more relevant extension messages. An example of integrated decision rules is described, their efficiency as management tools is examined, and an illustration is given of how such an analysis could be used in extension work.     

Does agricultural extension pay?

Compared to studies evaluating the benefits from agricultural research, there are relatively few empirical studies of the net economic benefits of agricultural extension, and even fewer that consider both public and private sector extension effort. In this study we examine regional differences in the adoption of lupins in Western Australia (WA) in order to estimate the net economic benefits of public and private sector extension. Impacts of extension and other variables on adoption were analysed for 40 shires using multivariate regression analysis. The results suggest that both public and private extension activities influenced farmer uptake of lupins, particularly by bringing forward the start time of the diffusion curve. Economic benefits of extension, based on the statistical analysis, were combined with costs of extension estimated from public sector records and surveys of private sector extension agents and used to estimate the net present value of extension investments by the public and private sectors in the study area.     

THE CALCULATION OF RATES OF RETURN ON AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH FROM PRODUCTION FUNCTIONS

A general framework is described whereby, using production functions, the rate of return on additional agricultural R & D can be calculated. This enables existing procedures to be critically reviewed. Illustrative results are given which indicate that the rates of return found in previous studies tend to be overestimates. It is also pointed out that these studies usually refer to well in the past, when the level of the agricultural research investment was generally lower and rates of return consequently larger than might now be expected. It is, however, concluded that the production-function approach needs extension and refinement, and better values of key parameters determined, before it could be used quantitatively as a determinant of research policy.     

Factors influencing hedging decision: evidence from Brazilian citrus growers

The purpose of this study was to analyse the hedging behaviour of 98 citrus growers from the State of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Marketing behaviour was modelled as a choice between spot market, short and long‐term forward contracts. A multinomial logistic regression model was used to evaluate the role of behavioural, personal and managerial variables in the choice. Results indicated that the factors which explain the use of forward contracts by citrus growers are the following: risk propensity; trade with juice processing companies; farming diversification; overconfidence in management; participation in pools; use of management tools; and technical assistance. The results can be useful for farmers, policymakers, government agencies, traders and extension agents.     

Technology choice and efficiency on Australian dairy farms*

Deregulation of the Australian dairy industry, specifically the removal of price subsidies to ‘market milk’, as well as ongoing drought in many dairy regions, has placed considerable pressure on farm cash income and a search for ways in which dairy farms can be made to operate more efficiently. Using traditional farm survey data and a unique biannual data set on farm technology use, this paper estimates a stochastic production frontier and technical efficiency model for dairy farms in New South Wales and Victoria, determining the relative importance of each input in dairy production, the effects of key technology variables on farm efficiency, and overall farm profiles based on the efficiency rankings of dairy producers. Results show that production exhibits constant returns to scale and although feed concentration and the number of cows milked at peak season matter, the key determinants of differences in dairy farm efficiency are the type of dairy shed used and the proportion of irrigated farm area. Overall farm profiles indicate that those in the ‘high efficiency group’ largely employ either rotary or swing‐over dairy shed technology and have almost three times the proportional amount of land under irrigation.     

Agriculture–nutrition linkages in farmers’ communication networks

To date, little is known about how information flows within farmer groups and how extension interventions could be designed to deliver combined information on agriculture and nutrition. This study uses unique network data from 815 farm households in Kenya to investigate the structure and characteristics of agricultural and nutrition information networks within farmer groups. Dyadic regressions are used to analyze the factors influencing link formation for the exchange of agricultural and nutrition information. In addition, we apply fixed‐effects models to identify the characteristics of central persons driving information exchange in the two networks, as well as potentially isolated persons, who are excluded from information networks within their farmer groups. Our results show that nutrition information is exchanged within farmer groups, although to a limited extent, and mostly flows through the existing agricultural information links. Thus, diffusing nutrition information through agricultural extension systems may be a viable approach. Our findings further suggest that group leaders and persons living in central locations are important drivers in the diffusion of information in both networks and may thus serve as suitable entry points for nutrition‐sensitive extension programs. However, we also identify important heterogeneities in network characteristics. In particular, nutrition information is less often exchanged between men and women, and some group members are completely isolated from nutrition information exchange within their farmer groups. We derive recommendations on taking these differences in network structure and characteristics into account when designing nutrition‐sensitive extension programs.     

农业强省战略下广东现代农业技术推广体系：现状与趋势

广东实施农业强省战略具有必然性和可能性,而农业强省战略的实施需要现代农业技术推广体系作为支撑。广东农业技术推广体系在现代农业发展中发挥了重要作用,但仍存在诸多不足,乐昌市与惠东县对基层农技推广体系改革的尝试,为广东现代农业技术推广体系的完善和建设提供了借鉴。     

RURAL EXTENSION AND THE AGRICULTURAL ECONOMIST*

The role of the agricultural economist in rural extension is discussed with particular reference to the changing structure of extension, exemplified by the development of private consulting services and the changing orientation of extension from purely technical considerations to problems of management. The status of the agriculturist generally, and of the extension worker in particular, is also examined and it is concluded that the status of extension as a profession must be raised if the results of technical and economic research in agriculture are to be utilised effectively.     

新时期水产技术推广的重点和体系建设

水产技术推广工作，是渔业科技与生产的桥梁，新时期搞好水产技术推广要做好六项工作，并配套相应的措施与完善推广方式。     

THE EVOLUTION OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN ENGLAND AND WALES PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS

This paper traces the evolution of agricultural extension in England and Wales and reflects on the reasons for the changes which have occurred in its structure, direction and funding. It describes the change from an extension to a consultancy organisation, analyses the effects of such a change, and examines some of the early mistakes in undertaking it. Questions are raised about whether advice paid for by the client improves the focus of extension and enhances the effectiveness of the relationship between adviser and client. It also questions whether Government policies towards agriculture could be equally well carried out by contracting out the work of extension to the private sector.     

A trait-based model of the potential demand for a genetically engineered food crop in a developing economy

We predict the potential demand of smallholder farmers for genetically transformed varieties of a food crop, the cooking banana of the East African highlands. Farmer demand for planting material is derived in an agricultural household model that accounts for variety traits and missing markets. The demand for candidate host varieties is predicted using a Zero‐Inflated Poisson (ZIP) regression system. The fitted model is used to illustrate the sensitivity of farmer demand for improved planting material to (a) investments in research and development, represented by the effectiveness of gene insertion and expression, and (b) other public investments in education, extension, and market infrastructure that support diffusion. By comparing the characteristics of agricultural households we demonstrate that the choice of host variety can have social consequences, favoring one rural population compared with another. Clients for transgenic banana planting material are likely to be poorer, subsistence‐oriented farmers in areas greatly affected by biotic constraints. A model of this type might be useful in assessing the investments needed to support the systematic dissemination of improved planting material. The approach can be generalized to other crop biotechnologies for smallholder farming systems, particularly in developing economies.     

Dial “A” for agriculture: a review of information and communication technologies for agricultural extension in developing countries

Agriculture can serve as an important engine for economic growth in developing countries, yet yields in these countries have lagged far behind those in developed countries for decades. One potential mechanism for increasing yields is the use of improved agricultural technologies, such as fertilizers, seeds, and cropping techniques. Public sector programs have attempted to overcome information‐related barriers to technological adoption by providing agricultural extension services. While such programs have been widely criticized for their limited scale, sustainability, and impact, the rapid spread of mobile phone coverage in developing countries provides a unique opportunity to facilitate technological adoption via information and communication technology (ICT)‐based extension programs. This article outlines the potential mechanisms through which ICT could facilitate agricultural adoption and the provision of extension services in developing countries. It then reviews existing programs using ICT for agriculture, categorized by the mechanism (voice, text, internet, and mobile money transfers) and the type of services provided. Finally, we identify potential constraints to such programs in terms of design and implementation, and conclude with some recommendations for implementing field‐based research on the impact of these programs on farmers’ knowledge, technological adoption, and welfare.     

PRIVATISING THE PRODUCTION OF KNOWLEDGE: PROMISE AND PITFALLS FOR AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND EXTENSION

In the absence of some form of government intervention, knowledge is a classic public good which will be under-produced because of lack of price excludability. Government intervention may take the form of establishing intellectual property rights, or other means of shielding knowledge-based innovations from imitation or copying. Such intervention offers the prospect of 'privatising' the production of knowledge in the sense that a certain level of private knowledge production may become profitable if producers can appropriate at least part of the benefits of R&D. However, publicly funded R&D or extension still can 'crowd out' private knowledge production by charging lower prices. The principal finding of this study is that such 'crowding out' behaviour may be efficient in the sense of being potentially Pareto superior even if it is at the expense of public funding for so called 'orphan' areas of knowledge production which are privately unprofitable. The reason why conventional conclusions about privatisation and 'crowding out' of private goods need not apply to rural research and extension is that private goods are both rival in consumption and price excludable, while knowledge is intrinsically non rival in consumption even if it can be made price excludable.     

A strategic environmental assessment method for agricultural policy in the UK

There are a number of significant environmental impacts that arise from agricultural practices that may be influenced by policy. A Strategic Environmental Assessment Method (SEAM) is described which aims to assess the environmental impacts of agricultural policy and aid the development of more sustainable policy formulation. The method addresses the issues of selecting appropriate performance criteria and measurements, and makes use of effect-damage functions and targets to determine the significance of potential impacts in relation to sustainability. A set of profiles is produced, describing the environmental performance of a specific policy. A confidence assessment system (CAS) is also described which provides details about the quality of the assessment and areas of uncertainty. SEAM provides information about impacts in simple format that can be easily used in decision making. It can identify environmental trade-offs and provides a holistic view that is essential when making decisions that affect the environment.     

村级土地利用规划编制

研究目的：研究村级土地利用规划编制的问题。研究方法：归纳综合法。研究结果：村级土地利用规划的编制有利于村内产业发展、生产管理、经营管理和土地利用管理的有机结合,有利于各类规划的相互协调;村级土地利用规划中划分土地利用片,为土地灵活经营管理,落实上级规划控制指标,科学形成土地利用分区,解决土地规划中的刚性、弹性问题,实现土地利用精细化管理,有效落实土地用途管制创造了有利的条件。研究结论：村级土地利用规划编制不但是对中国现行土地利用总体规划体系的延伸和完善,而且也是适应村域经济发展对土地利用规划管理的要求。     

Volunteer farmer-trainer motivations in East Africa: practical implications for enhancing farmer-to-farmer extension

Farmer-to-farmer extension (FFE) has received considerable interest in developing countries due to a decline in government extension services. There are, however, questions as to how FFE can be improved to enhance effectiveness and sustainability of the approach. One area that may hold the key is to understand volunteer farmer-trainer (VFT) motivations. Informal and formal interviews were held with VFTs in a smallholder dairy development project in Kenya, Uganda and Rwanda. Data were collected on the reasons why VFTs became trainers and why they continue to train. Findings of the study showed that VFTs were motivated by a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic factors. These factors are not static; they change over time. Gaining knowledge and skills as well as altruism were found to be the most important motivating factors for becoming trainers in the three countries. However, a few years after becoming trainers, income earned from selling inputs and specialized services associated with training was an important motivating factor to VFTs in Kenya. In Uganda gaining knowledge and skills remained the most important whereas in Rwanda, a new motivation, increased demand for training, was the most important reason for continuing to train. These findings point to the fact that the general reasons that motivate VFTs irrespective of context are similar; however, the importance attached to motivations is context specific. These motivations can provide insights into which incentives can be enhanced to improve effectiveness and sustainability of FFE.