Destination food image and intention to eat destination foods: a view from Korea

Food image has begun to influence tourist behaviour, so understanding the food image of a destination is important. This study examined the relationships among destination food image, preference, and intention to eat destination foods. A total of 357 tourists in Korea participated in this study. The results of structural equation modelling confirmed empirically that image affected behavioural intention as it applied to food. Cognitive image had a stronger influence than affective image on preferences for destination foods and intention to eat destination foods. In addition, preference for destination foods predicted intention to eat destination foods. This study indicates that the cognitive image of destination foods should be identified and that image strengthened to increase tourists' intentions to eat destination foods. Marketing strategies should appeal to both authenticity and the unique cognitive image of destination foods as well as encourage tourists to experience destination foods and gain internal information.     

Extending the theory of planned behaviour: testing the effects of authentic perception and environmental concerns on the slow-tourist decision-making process

Despite the importance of slow tourism, studies on slow tourists' decision-making processes are rare. The current study extends the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) by including authentic perception (AP) and environmental concerns (ECs) to explain the formation of behavioural intentions. The study also contributes by comparing its extended model with the original TPB and identifying salient belief items through a focus group and literature review. The results of a structural equation analysis revealed that the data fitted the extended model well and that the inclusion of the critical new constructs in a slow-tourism context significantly enhanced the prediction of behaviour intentions. The results also indicated that attitude, subjective norms, perceived behaviour control, and AP significantly contributed to forming the intention to participate in slow tourism. However, the influence from ECs to behavioural intentions was demonstrated to be insignificant. This study advances our understanding of tourists' decision-making processes in that these slow tourists are more likely to choose an “authentic”, rather than “environmental”, destination.     

Predicting tourists' behavioural intentions at the destination level

Using structural equation modelling, the formative model was tested on a sample of 703 tourists who visited six coastal destinations in Montenegro. It relies on the complex relationships between five constructs – perceived quality of a destination's offerings, tourist satisfaction, perceived equity, perceived benefits and behavioural intentions – simultaneously incorporating the emotional and rational self-regulatory mechanisms. The empirical results supported the hypothesised relationships. The group of eight tourist destination attributes affects perceived quality of a destination's offerings that positively and directly relate to perceived benefits, behavioural intentions and tourist satisfaction, whereas satisfaction is also determined by equity perceptions. Additionally, perceived quality of a destination's offerings also relates indirectly to tourist behavioural intentions, through perceived benefits and tourist satisfaction, while satisfaction also mediates the interaction between perceived equity and tourist intended behaviour. These research results contribute to a deeper understanding of which behavioural processes, and with what strength, lead to the increase in tourist loyalty at the destination level, and ultimately provide better insights into the predictors of behavioural intentions.     

Modelling information use,image, and perceived risk with intentions to travel to East Asia

This research empirically tested a tourism behaviour model explaining tourists' intentions to vacation for the first time in selected countries extending image research by Baloglu and McCleary [(1999). U.S. international pleasure travelers’ images of four Mediterranean destinations: A comparison of visitors and nonvisitors. Journal of Travel Research, 38(2), 144–152; A model of destination image formation. Annals of Tourism Research, 26(4), 868–897] and more recently Kaplanidou and Vogt [(2007). The interrelationship between sport event and destination image and sport tourists’ behaviors. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 12(3–4), 183–206]. Key factors that remain untested in modelling international travel propensity were identified as: information sources, cognitive and affective destination image, and perceived risk. On-site surveys were conducted in two US metropolitan areas with a purposive convenience sample. Data were analysed with structural equation modelling for three destination countries (China, Japan, and South Korea) so that positioning strategies were illustrated through empirical evidence. Modelling results supported previous research showing that stronger positive cognitive and affective destination images and lower perceived risks for vacationing in a destination positively influenced intentions to travel to the countries of interest. Of greater interest are findings on information usage influencing cognitively held images, particularly cultural experiences, but information use was found not to directly influence the affective component of image. Intent to travel to each of the three countries was heightened by different factors – for China it was affective image, for Japan cognitive image, and South Korea a reduction in perceived risks. Destination marketers can use this model to understand the use of information sources, in general or specific types, to influence cognitive images held and perceived risks associated with a foreign country, and to ultimately modify affective image and intent to visit a destination for the potential first-time visitors.     

Destination image,on-site experience and behavioural intentions: path analytic validation of a marketing model on domestic tourists

Despite its contribution to the national economy, domestic tourism is one of the most neglected and under-researched forms of tourism in the literature. This study tested an integrated path model examining the interrelationships between destination image, perceived quality, satisfaction and behavioural intentions, using domestic tourists who visited Eilat, Israel. The findings support the hierarchical relationships between image, quality, satisfaction and behavioural intentions. In addition, the affective image component was found to exert a far greater impact on the overall destination image than the cognitive component. The study establishes a better understanding of domestic tourists’ destination image and behavioural intention formulation. It also provides a number of implications for destination managers targeting the voluminous domestic segment.     

Determinants hindering the intention of tourists to visit disaster-hit destinations

The purpose of this study is to propose and examine a new research model that is able to capture both the cognitive and affective components influencing potential tourists' behavioural intentions to visit a disaster-hit destination, which have negatively affected their perceived destination image. A survey of 357 participants provides strong support for the model. The results indicate that participants' perceptions of destination image are a strong predictor of their travel intentions. Factors relating to cognitive appraisals (e.g. perceived equipment risk, perceived natural risk and perceived social risk) as well as affective evaluations (e.g. perceived fear of ghosts, perceived unpleasantness, etc.) were found to be critical components that significantly, and negatively, influence potential tourists' perceptions of a destination image. Theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed herein.     

The role of destination personality in predicting tourist behaviour: implications for branding mid-sized urban destinations

The purpose of this study was to explore urban tourists' perceptions of the personality of a mid-sized city destination in Greece and to assess the effect of destination personality on the city's overall image and tourists' behavioural intentions. Experience with the destination was taken into account as the sample consisted of three distinct groups of urban tourists: local residents, past visitors of the city and non-visitors. Through a mixed-methods approach, excitement and sincerity were found to be the predominant personality characteristics of the destination across all respondents. Further analyses offered support for the significant role of personality in influencing overall destination image and predicting tourists' intention to (re)visit the city or recommend it to others. Differences among the three groups as well as implications of the findings for branding small or mid-sized urban destinations are also discussed.     

Application of cultural tourist typology in a gaming destination – Macao

The aim of the paper is to study how cultural tourist typologies apply in an urban gaming destination and how such typologies could aid in the segmentation and profiling of this niche tourist market. Results showed that there exists a certain demand for cultural tourism in Macao and there are different ways to distinguish between cultural and non-cultural tourists, as well as to identify sub-groups of cultural tourists. The three approaches used to distinguish between the two cohorts came up with different percentages of cultural tourists within the total tourist sample. Other findings showed significant differences in trip characteristics and information search behaviour between the two cohorts and among sub-groups of cultural tourists. Such information could be used for profiling purposes. The resulting profiles have implications on marketing and promotion strategies which should not focus only on tourists' primary motives but should attempt to induce or arouse their secondary interests. The methodology could be applied to other destinations hoping to develop cultural tourism.     

Tourist–community interactions in ethnic tourism: Tuva villages,Kanas Scenic Area,China

Tourists and destination communities interact in different contexts. Such interactions play a key role in constructing a rewarding experience and cultural understanding for tourists and influence the social and cultural life of the destination community. It is particularly so at ethnic areas where tourism experiences are acquired through encounters with the ethnic community. A diagram of tourist–community interactions in ethnic tourism is developed to outline different types of interactions, factors affecting these interactions, and impacts to both groups of actors. This research explores tourist–community interactions through a comparative examination of tourists' and residents' perceptions at Tuva villages in Kanas Scenic Area (KSA), China. In-depth interviews were conducted with residents involved in tourism and tourists to KSA through two field investigations in 2010 and 2013. Research results indicate that the ethnic encounter is not perceived by tourists as a primary motivation to visit Kanas, but it contributes to the formation of a satisfactory on-site experience. Tourists and community members have diverse needs for these interactions and are impacted by these interactions to different degrees. The research also reveals that community participation influences how and to what extent these interactions occur. Practical implications for KSA are then discussed.     

‘Scary … but I like it!’ Young tourists' perceptions of fear on holiday

This paper explores young tourists' perceptions of fear on holiday. The work on which this paper is based is important because it sheds light on tourists' emotional experiences on holiday, which are central to increase our understanding of tourist behaviour. The importance of investigating perceptions of fear has been recognized within a number of different disciplines, such as psychology, sociology, criminology, and marketing. Indeed, it has been argued that fear may provide significant information concerning an individual's motivations, preferences, and patterns of behaviour. Despite this, perceptions of fear within the tourism experience have remained relatively unexplored. It is often assumed that perceptions of safety and security may influence individuals' destination choice. However, there is a paucity of studies concerning tourists' perceptions of fear during the tourism experience. This paper is based on three months of qualitative fieldwork conducted on the island of Ios, Greece in the summer of 2007. More specifically, participant observation and semi-structured interviews were methods employed for data collection to explore young tourists' perceptions of fear. The possibility to develop a rapport and build a relationship with young tourists on Ios was crucial to collect valuable information concerning tourists' background, their emotions, expectations, perceptions, and the context in which perceptions of fear were experienced and expressed. The study found that most holidaymakers on Ios participated in activities perceived as risky in order to experience fear. In this respect, young tourists deliberately sought fear and thrill to increase their levels of pleasure and enjoyment during the tourism experience. The results suggest that fear may play a positive role in the tourism experience of young tourists, which should no longer be ignored by tourism scholars.     

Experiential and involvement effects on the Korean wine tourist's decision-making process

This study's core purpose is to understand the behavioural intention (BI) of wine tourists using the Extended Model of Goal-directed Behaviour (EMGB). Specifically, the Model of Goal-directed Behaviour (MGB), an advanced version of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), is extended to EMGB by incorporating experience and involvement towards wine tourism to better understand wine tourists' intention to participate in a tour. The sample was 211 Korean wine tourists. Results revealed that two constructs related to wine tourism, namely, experience of a wine tour and wine tourism involvement, formed positive and significant relationships with attitude towards participating in such a tour. Attitude, subjective norm, and positive anticipated emotion influenced tourists' desire to participate in a wine tour, which, in turn, influenced their BI. Contrary to expectations, the frequency of past behaviour does not have a significant effect on desire and BI, and perceived behavioural control has no significant effects on BI.     

The Effects of a Negative Travel Experience on Tourists' Decisional Behavior

This study examines the influence of a negative experience at a destination on tourists by identifying its effects on individuals' judgment. Empirical evidence of the tangible effects of a single travel experience on individuals' decision‐making is lacking. Prospect theory and negativity bias theory are introduced for theoretical support. The ratings of generally important criteria for destination selection and the evaluation of the destination on those criteria were collected before and after visitation. A mean comparison showed that the effects of a single travel experience are tangible and affect tourists' future decisional behavior intentions by contributing to shaping the individuals' destination selection criteria. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Is social class still working? Revisiting the social class division in tourist consumption

The effects of social class division have been extensively examined in tourist behaviour studies, but mostly on specific tourism forms, attractions, or activities. Limited empirical research has looked into the effects of social class difference (as well as other demographic variables) on tourists' destination consumption in a holistic and comprehensive way. To revisit the role of social class in today's tourist consumption, this study stratified a group of American tourists based on their social class and compared their participation patterns in four types of destination activities: cultural, hedonic, nature-based, and shopping-related. The empirical data were from a conversion and destination branding study conducted for Thoroughbred Country, South Carolina. The analysis gained mixed results, as social class was found to have significant impacts on tourists' consumption of certain destination products/activities, but not on others. It was expected that this study could not only contribute to the research endeavours in tourist consuming behaviour, but also provide practical implications for more effective destination marketing and market segmentation strategies.     

Analysing Chinese citizens' intentions of outbound travel: a machine learning approach

Due to the tremendous expansion of Chinese outbound travel market, it is of great significance to identify the characteristics of potential Chinese outbound tourists so as to develop targeted marketing strategies. As both extrinsic and intrinsic characteristics of individuals are important in influencing their decision-making process, this study explores potential Chinese outbound tourists from these two aspects. Demographic and psychographic factors, as the proxy of extrinsic and intrinsic characteristics, respectively, are incorporated into this study to construct the relationship between tourists' characteristics and their intentions of outbound travel. An advanced machine learning approach, called twice-learning, is employed for modelling in this study. As an intelligent data analysis tool, this method is able to construct models that can provide insight into the ground-truth relationships hidden beneath the data in an essentially comprehensible way, without being limited by the typical assumptions held by the traditional data analysis methods. By applying this method, the important personal factors that influence Chinese citizens' intentions of outbound travel are detected, and the typical groups of potential Chinese outbound tourists are characterised. The findings would be beneficial for destination marketers to develop marketing strategies on positioning and advertising which are tailored to potential Chinese outbound travel market.     

The loyalty process of residents and tourists in the festival context

Few attempts have been made to find out if the loyalty process for residents and tourists in the context of cultural festivals is the same. This study investigated the influence of involvement on satisfaction as factors contributing to the likelihood of returning to an annual festival for residents and tourists. A sample of 412 attendees of a cultural and historic festival in the Midwest region of the USA was surveyed. The results showed that both residents and tourists who were more involved with the festival had higher satisfaction levels. However, only residents who were highly satisfied with the festival were more likely to attend again, whereas tourists' satisfaction level did not significantly influence their likelihood of returning. For tourists, it is likely that their quest for novelty is influential in shaping their future intentions. Implications of this result for the sustainability of cultural festivals are discussed.     

To go or stay home and watch: exploring the balance between motives and perceived constraints for major events: a case study of the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games

The current study offers insight into the role of motivation and constraints on behavioural intentions prior to a mega event. The Psychological Continuum Model framework was used to integrate motivation and leisure constraints theory to examine attraction towards the 2008 Olympic Games. Semi‐structured interviews (N = 47) and a questionnaire (N = 235) distributed in Australia and the USA were used to identify and measure three motivational themes: cultural learning, cultural experience and olympic event interest, and three perceived constraints: structural, interpersonal and intrapersonal. Structural Equation Modelling revealed that motives were positively related to behavioural intentions while constraints were negatively related. Analysis further revealed the interaction between motives and perceived constraints led to two different forms of behavioural intentions; intentions to travel and attend the event vs. stay home to watch the event on TV. Policy and marketing implications are discussed that illustrate the benefits of understanding both motives and perceived constraints for tourism travel. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley and Sons, Ltd.     

An integrative model of destination brand equity and tourist satisfaction

This paper develops an integrative model that includes the dimensions of destination brand equity (i.e. awareness, image, quality and loyalty), as well as a key behavioural variable that is tourist satisfaction. In particular, our paper aims to contribute to the literature: (1) by examining the relationships between the dimensions of destination brand equity, which is not a deeply investigated issue so far; and (2) by adding tourist satisfaction, a key concept in loyalty formation, to the variables usually considered in destination brand equity models. The model was tested in two samples, national and international tourists visiting a destination in Spain, in order to also explore the role of the geographical and cultural distance between tourist and destination. Our results from a multi-group analysis indicate: (1) a robust link between “quality-satisfaction-loyalty” in both samples of tourists; (2) a chain of effects among awareness, image (separately considering the cognitive and affective dimensions) and perceived quality, although with the presence of some significant difference between both samples of tourists; and (3) a positive influence of cognitive image on affective image in both cases.     

The influence of value perceptions on tourist souvenir purchase decisions

Shopping is an important activity impacting the travel and tourism industry. This research explores the influence of value perceptions on tourists' souvenir purchase decisions. A convenience sample of 380 respondents from a southeastern US university completed a survey regarding value perception towards the destination visited, type of shopping venue, and souvenir purchase intention. Through structural equation modeling, results revealed that functional and social value significantly influenced tourists' purchase intentions. This result provides valuable insight suggesting destination marketers should focus on these two indicators in future planning and promotion strategies. Limitations and directions for future research are provided.     

Impressions of Liusanjie: a study of motivation,theatrical performance evaluation,and satisfaction

This paper examines the relationships between motivation to visit, performance evaluation, satisfaction, and behavioural intentions for tourists experiencing ‘Impressions of Liusanjie’, an iconic, outdoor, theatrical performance in Guilin, China. The study finds that motivation does not affect satisfaction directly but that performance evaluation is an intervening variable between motivation and satisfaction. It also finds that experiential evaluation of the theatrical performance has more effect on satisfaction than evaluation of technical and functional attributes. Tourists were surveyed after the performance and the results analysed using cluster, correlation analysis and structural equation modelling (SEM). The first two techniques were used to identify existing relationships amongst the study variables. SEM was applied to determine if a causal relationship existed and, if so, their strength. This research provides a contribution to the understanding of tourist motivation, theatrical performance evaluation, satisfaction, and behavioural intentions.     

Non‐participation of Domestic Tourism: Analyzing the Influence of Discouraging Factors

This study analyzes the factors that discourage non‐tourists' participation in domestic tourism. Data were collected in 15 cities in China and analyzed using a comparative analysis and non‐parametric ridit analysis. The findings indicate that (i) non‐tourists have low internal travel motivation and attitude and are more likely to be under 25 or above 55 years old, less educated, less healthy, with small child(ren) and lower income; (ii) non‐tourists consider less on destination environment and attraction, but focus on price and travel expenses when making a travel decision and destination choice; and (iii) economic and leisure time are their main situational travel constrains. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.