The role of Government in the development of tourism in Kenya

This study uses the case study of Kenya to analyse the role of government in the development of tourism in the Third World. Usually, government involvement in the development of tourism reflects on the uniqueness and peculiarity of the tourism industry. By its nature, the development and provision of tourism product involves diverse stakeholders and activities. In the diverse socio‐economic situation, it is usually the government that has the required social and political capacity and legitimacy to bring together and co‐ordinate the activities of diverse and different interest groups which are involved in the development of tourism and, also, establish the required level playing field. In this regard, as probably is the case in most less developed countries where tourism is a major socio‐economic activity, the Kenya Government has, over the years, played a crucial role in the development of the country's tourism industry. Particularly, during the exploratory stage of tourism development in Kenya, it was government involvement that helped lay the required groundwork and, as a consequence, jump‐started the rapid development of the country's tourism industry. However, in recent years, particularly in the 1990s, Kenya's tourism industry is confronted with serious problems including declining international visitor arrivals and decreasing tourism revenues. Ironically, the same government that played a crucial role, especially in the initial development of the country's tourism industry, is currently being blamed as being responsible for the industry's current poor performance. Thus, this study will also examine the underlying factors responsible for the current downturns in Kenya's tourism industry and how they relate to the role of government in the development of tourism. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Heritage transformation and the sociocultural impact of tourism in Umm Qais

Using the heritage site of Umm Qais as a case study, this article argues that tourism could radically shape or reshape the intangible and tangible heritage of the hosts’ communities at tourism destinations. Findings reveal that local culture and tangible heritage of Umm Qais were not resilient enough to absorb the changes brought about by tourism development. Although tourism transformed the residents of Umm Qais from agriculturalists to urbanites, and led to significant changes in traditions and the responsibilities of each individual within the society, there was no impact concerning the moral values such as increase of alcoholism, illicit drug use, and prostitution. Results also indicate that residents’ attitudes, whether negative or positive, are basically homogeneous about tourists, heritage, and tourism and its sociocultural impacts.     

Red tourism: sustaining communist identity in a rapidly changing China

‘Red tourism’ is to exploit the historical heritage of the Chinese Communist Party for tourism development. Such tourism practice has been used by the nation state of China both to drive the country's economic growth and develop new patronage of the communist ideology among the young generation. From the broader context of China's economic and social changes since 1978 when the country started its open-door policy and economic reform, our paper attempts to examine ‘red tourism’ by analyzing how the nation state of China promotes the communist heritage through ‘red tourism’ in order to sustain the communist identity in a rapidly changing China. Research questions are raised to address the economic and social factors for the nation state involvement in ‘red tourism’: the specific roles of such involvement and the outcomes. Based on a case study, this paper presents how heritage is interpreted at a specific ‘red tourism’ site in order to portray a selective part of the communist heritage as a symbol of the Chinese nation. In so doing, ‘red tourism’ aims to serve the purpose of the nation state to sustain the communist identity in the continuing effort of developing a ‘socialist country of Chinese characteristics’.     

Heritage and tourism conflict within world heritage sites in China: a longitudinal study

Although the conflicting relationship between heritage and tourism has been debated at length in the Western academic literature, interest in the relationship is now becoming increasingly pronounced across the developing world with particular interest noted in China. To examine this phenomenon further, this study explores the cause and temporal variation of conflicts between heritage and tourism over the past decade in China. Content analysis was adopted as the most appropriate methodology for the study with data from online media reports serving as the primary data for the analysis of the occurrence of heritage and tourism conflicts in China. The findings highlight antiquated management structures, inappropriate tourism operations, and the ineffective use or deficiency of legislation as the primary causes of heritage and tourism conflicts in China with the categories of conflicts varying from clashes relating to resource use to clashes over values. The findings also shed light on the significant role played by the media in the resolution of conflicts. Finally, implications and limitations of the study's findings are discussed.     

Levuka,Fiji: Contested Heritage

The complex links between heritage and tourism, and the ways in which attitudes towards historical built environments vary over time and place, are demonstrated in a study of Levuka, on the small island of Ovalau, Fiji. The town was founded by traders of European origin, and for a few years was Fiji's first colonial capital. Since the late 1800s, however, it has remained undeveloped, despite periodic efforts by tourism interests, resident expatriates and some government departments, to raise its profile and conserve its buildings and ambience through the development of tourism. Over the past decade, these attempts have crystallised in moves to nominate the municipality for listing as a UNESCO World Heritage site. This paper describes Levuka's origins and its continued association with the colonial past, discusses the impetus within Fiji to nominate it, analyses UNESCO's role in supporting Levuka's case, and indicates the variety of perceptions to 'heritage' in the town, across Ovalau, and more widely in the Fiji Islands.     

Global Heritage and Local Problems: Some Examples from Indonesia

This article examines what happens to those who live in and around monuments as a result of World Heritage designation. Using the examples of Borobudur and Prambanan in Indonesia as study sites, it is argued that the values that local people attach to heritage are often different from, although not necessarily less important than, the values ascribed by international agencies, government officials, tourism developers and others. However, their perspectives are often not adequately represented or respected by other participants in the planning and management of sites, to the detriment of both the plans and the people. The tendency to adopt top-down, rational comprehensive planning procedures has resulted in the disenfranchisement of local people, giving greater prominence to expressions of national, 'official' culture and nationalism at the expense of local culture. It has tended to freeze sites and displace human activities, effectively excluding local people from their own heritage.     

Profiling the Heritage Experience in Macao's Historic Center

This paper applies Pine and Gilmore's four realms of experience – Esthetic, Escapism, Entertainment and Education – to investigate Macao's Historic Center in terms of the experience value attached to different heritage sites by tourists, with implications for understanding the experience profile of heritage tourism sites in general. The research is based on a survey of 700 tourists. Dominant experience profiles for the sites, which differ from that of the Historic Center as a whole, are identified and discussed, as are the implications of specific synergies identified between different dimensions of the experience of these heritage sites. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Ecological tourism in the state image policy structure. Experience and problems of modern Russia

The article deals with the problems of ecological tourism in Russia. The authors give various approaches to the understanding of ecological tourism in modern science, analyse the reasons of interest in this kind of tourism, consider its types and identify specific features. The article provides an overview of the main regions and countries where ecological tourism is developed at a high level and considers some national policy models in the field of ecological tourism. Specific attention is paid to the analysis of the development of ecological tourism in Russia and its current status; the examples of different programmes aiming at support of ecological tourism are given. Specific impetus is given to Russia's resources for the development of ecological tourism, for example, natural landscapes, national parks and nature heritage sites. The authors explore the main challenges to ecological tourism in Russia, identify factors that hinder its development and suggest measures to improve the ecological tourism in the Russian Federation. The authors focus on the projects that promote the improvement of Russia's image as an eco-touristic destination. The authors pay specific attention to the analysis of international cooperation in this field. The article discusses various projects carried out within the framework of bilateral cooperation. The article discusses the role of ecological tourism as a tool for image policy. The article analyses in detail which elements of the Russian image are under the influence of ecological tourism and what are the future prospects of ecological tourism.     

From Storyville to Bourbon Street: Vice,Nostalgia and Tourism

This paper contrasts New Orleans' former red-light district, Storyville, and contemporary Bourbon Street, New Orleans' major tourist attraction, to illustrate how history has been revived into a tourist product to maintain the city's appeal as a destination. Nostalgic images are developed for tourism consumption of heritage destinations. The images are idealised versions of the past that alter the authenticity of the historic context from where they came. On Bourbon Street, the Storyville district is utilised as an image to elicit nostalgia of a period no longer actively incorporated into New Orleans's cultural fabric. Through a qualitative analysis of the tourism communication materials, Bourbon Street is analysed as a nostalgic representation of Storyville and its once acceptable vice activities. Activities such as public sexuality, music and dancing, and shopping are ways in which tourists can experience the once legal red-light district. It is argued that what is presented to tourists is a commercial image of the past and its reputation, rather than an accurate portrayal of New Orleans either yesterday or today.     

Bamyan: Whose Heritage Was It and What Should We Do About It?

The destruction for ostensibly ideological reasons of the Buddhist statues at Bamyan in Afghanistan by the Taliban (whether or not inspired by Al-Qaeda) raises a number of wider issues. Apart from the problems of minority, dissonant and enclave heritage, there is the question, 'how can relics of the past that are valued in different ways by local, national and international claimants be managed in a way that satisfies all parties?' The idea of world heritage, and its manifestation in international tourism, may conflict with heritage used for local or national purposes. One, if not the most important, actor in this arena, UNESCO, is evaluated on the basis of its goals and efficiency in saving the heritage of mankind in the recent past. The dilemmas inherent in the concept of world heritage and possible solutions for its management are outlined.     

Rural tourism development in China

This paper provides an overview and brief evaluation of China's rural tourism. Beginning with the form of poverty alleviation through tourism, China's rural tourism has undergone over 20 years of development and exhibited some unique features in its development pattern, scale and business operational models in accordance with China's political, social and economic systems. Government plays a decisive role in developing rural tourism in China. However, rural tourism has been valued mainly as an economic means for rural development during the country's modernisation process. Overlooking rurality as an essential issue in rural tourism may lead development to a wrong direction, which could jeopardise the sustainability of the industry. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Post-Conflict tourism development in Sri Lanka: implications for building resilience

The 30?year war between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) had a considerable impact on the country's tourism industry. Yet, despite the war, the industry continued to exhibit a high level of resilience and since the end of the war international visitation has increased rapidly. This study, using a comprehensive review of literature and a series of interviews, examines the impact of the war on the industry as well as the government's post-conflict responses. Despite the rapid increase in international tourism numbers various concerns have been raised that government policies are likely to advantage large tourism operators and developers at the expense of small businesses in the informal sector. The development of the industry may also be at the expense of livelihoods of poorer members of society in other industries. A concentration on large-scale developments may reduce the resilience and therefore sustainability of the industry.     

Regenerating urban traditions in Bahrain. Learning from Bab-Al-Bahrain: the authentic fake

Gulf cities are determined to diversify their economies in an attempt to face the new realities resulting from the post-oil paradigm. Knowing the fact that its oil resources are about to dry up, Bahrain is forced to bank on alternative activities in order to sustain its development. For Bahrain, the diversification into the financial and tourism sectors is more urgent than for its neighbours. As a major development strategy, a tangible tendency towards using the visual scenery of their culture and history can be observed in new projects intended to achieve economic diversification. The aim is to create dreams, fantasies and models to attract tourists, travellers and visitors who are ready and prepared to ‘consume’ the ‘authentic’ heritage of such traditional cities. This construction of an image of the past – a persona – is part of what Baudrillard call ‘reality by proxy’, a stimulated environment. This paper uses Bab-Al-Bahrain as a case to investigate notions of ‘hyper-reality’ and ‘hyper-traditions’ emerging from, and imported by, globalisation. This hyper-tradition emerges from the ‘birthplace’ of the tradition it is stimulating. This might also provide a case study of what Eco refers to as ‘authentic fake’. The inevitable necessity of diversifying Bahrain's economy allowed the island to see itself as the financial, commercial and recreational hub for the gulf region. Historically, the old port that was once the main gate to Manama city, the Bahraini capital, actually called Bab-Al-Bahrain (Bahrain Gate), was a commercial pole that extended to the main market (souq). This paper focuses on the area of Bab-Al-Bahrain and its urban and architectural adjacencies to illustrate Bahrain's efforts in promoting its historical and cultural heritage and using it as a vehicle for touristic development. An emphasis on the relation between event, place and the community in the selected context will provide a different vantage point from where to explore the importance of religious festivity and ethnic diversity in tourism development. The paper will also investigate the legitimacy and the complex dynamism of transforming historical heritage into a ‘hyper-tradition’ or a sort of ‘authentic fake’ in order to facilitate the tourists' consumption process of Bahraini culture. It would also argue that tourism changes the host community and influences its ‘authenticity faking’ process.     

Tour guides' interpretation of the Historic Center of Macao as a World Cultural Heritage site

Literature review suggests that little attention is paid to the interpretation of a World Cultural Heritage (WCH) ensemble such as the Historic Center of Macao (HCM). The present study aims to investigate tour guides' interpretation of the HCM and how their interpretation affects tourists' appreciation and understanding of a visited heritage site within the HCM, as well as tourists' interest in other under-used HCM sites. Methodologies include in-depth interviews with tour guides, on-site observations of tour guides and surveys of package group tourists. The findings indicate that tour guides tended to interpret an HCM heritage site as an independent WCH site. In turn, this results in tourists' misunderstanding of Macao's WCH and a lower level of authentic experience at the visited heritage site. It is advocated that the interpretation of any one heritage site of the HCM should connect to the HCM ensemble and other heritage sites within the HCM. The inter-cultural relationship among the heritage sites should be further explored and highlighted in narratives.     

International tourists' perceptions of Myanmar as a tourist destination in the crisis: A comparative study among three continents

Myanmar has emerged as a popular tourist destination following its recent political transformation, with the Travel and Tourism sector contributing significantly to the country's GDP. However, the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic posed numerous challenges for the global tourism industry and Myanmar, including travel restrictions, border closures, and health concerns. This study examines the levels of satisfaction and inconvenience experienced by tourists from Asia, Europe, and America who visited Myanmar during the early stages of the pandemic. A sample of 202 tourists was collected from Yangon and Myeik, two prominent tourist destinations in Myanmar. Various statistical tests were employed to analyze international tourists' perceptions of Myanmar tourism. The findings revealed that tourists from all three regions expressed satisfaction with the natural scenery, historical sites and architectural design, and traditional costumes offered by Myanmar. The implications of the study are discussed.     

Tourists' perceptions of heritage tourism development in Danish‐Osu,Ghana

This paper examines the tourist perceptions at Danish, Osu‐Ghana within the dark tourism or slavery heritage contexts. Using Cohen's (1979) typology of tourist experience, we differentiate between tourist knowledge of a heritage site relative to socio‐demographic indices. The results indicate that tourists' perception of Danish‐Osu reflect their knowledge of the site in relation to its cultural heritage attributes. In addition, it was found that tourists have dual experiences of the site: those that relate to recreational pursuits of heritage sites and those that ascribe meanings based on their background. The contemporary nature and use of Transatlantic Slave Trade relics for tourism development makes the case of the Danish‐Osu more delicate considering the ethical implications of interpreting the community's past to tourists as the borderlines are unclear. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Landscape,Memory and Heritage: New Year Celebrations at Angkor,Cambodia

This paper examines tourism, memory and notions of heritage at the World Heritage Site of Angkor, Cambodia. Rather than viewing heritage and social memory as abstract concepts, the paper explores domestic tourism at Angkor as the context within which Cambodia's recent history is re-articulated and made meaningful for a population recovering from decades of national turmoil. In exploring the various values and meanings associated with the national festival of Khmer New Year, the paper argues that an understanding of Angkor as a form of 'living heritage' remains neglected within a management framework which conceives the site as a form of material culture of the 'ancient' past. It is therefore suggested that exploring the values and meanings associated with Angkor's cultural heritage in this way provides valuable insight into the complex relationships of landscape, memory and identity.     

Creating and Recreating Heritage in Singapore

The aim of this paper is to examine the extent to which public planning and policy have created a 'national' identity for Singapore since its independence in 1965, the importance of heritage to contemporary Singapore, and how heritage is marketed to Singaporeans and visitors. Over the last 30 years Singapore has striven to create itself as one of the most modern and successful of the ASEAN nations, but this may have been at the cost of its indigenous cultures and authentic heritage. Many of the craft industries common in the late 1970s and 1980s have been lost, and while the Singapore Tourism Board promotes Chinatown, Little India and Kampong Glam as 'pockets of individuality' in Singapore's multicultural society, souvenirs currently on sale were made in China, India, Malaysia and Indonesia. By contrast, the enduring image of 'Singapore Girl' for Singapore Airlines led to an entire souvenir culture and a batik clad 'Singapore Girl' Barbie Doll.     

Tourism and social capital in Malaysia

This article explores the relationship between social capital and tourism in Malaysia. Social capital is a concept that has received particular attention within the social sciences. Despite this, scholars have relatively neglected whether and how tourism contributes to enhance levels of social capital. This is particularly true if non-Western societies, such as Malaysia, are referred to. Malaysia is a plural society that consists of three main ethnic groups, namely Malays, Chinese, and Indians. Considering the country's diverse socio-cultural fabric, social capital is a highly debated topic in Malaysia. Yet, there exists a paucity of data on how specific social practices, such as tourism, strengthen social relationships within Malaysian society. In an attempt to fill this gap, in-depth interviews were conducted with 22 Malaysians from the three main ethnic groups. The findings reveal that tourism is an experience that creates and strengthens social relationships among people irrespective of ethnic background. Overall, this article's contribution to our knowledge is twofold. First, the work on which this article is based contributes to the ongoing debate concerning the nature and meaning of tourism and post-tourism experiences. Second, it provides empirical material on non-Western tourists, who have been relatively neglected by tourism scholars.