China's Tax-for-Fee Reform and Village Inequality

In the late 1990s, China enacted a rural tax reform known as the “Tax-for-Fee Reform” (TFR), largely driven by a desire to address farmers' complaints about what they perceived as a heavy and regressive tax burden. This study examines the impact of the TFR on inequality in rural villages in China. Our results suggest that the TFR plays an effective role in reducing inequality within villages. Its impact on a consumption-based measure of inequality took effect immediately; its impact on per capita household income inequality took somewhat longer. Our results also suggest that it was “rich” and/or “coastal” villages that exhibited a significant reduction of inequality as a result of the TFR, whereas “poor” and/or “inland” villages experienced no significant changes in inequality from the reform.     

Structural changes in the demand for food in Asia: empirical evidence from Taiwan

Many Asian countries are expected to undergo structural transformations in their economies and rapid urbanization over the next 25 years. The changes in tastes and lifestyles engendered by urban living are likely to have significant influences on food demand. Changes in marketing systems and occupational changes, closely linked with increasing GNP per capita, also may influence the demand for food. In this paper, estimates presented for Taiwan demonstrate that structural changes in food demand (as distinguished from changes due to income and price effects) have been significant factors driving the rapid changes in dietary patterns seen in East Asia over the past three decades. Because most previous demand studies have ignored the possible influence of structural shifts which are highly correlated with increases in per capita income over time, the effects of income on food demand have been overestimated.     

Market access,organic farming and productivity: the effects of Fair Trade affiliation on Thai farmer producer groups*

The study analyses the impact of Fair Trade (FT) and organic farming on a sample of FT rice producers in Thailand. It finds that per capita income from agriculture is positively and significantly affected by years of organic certification and FT affiliation. The estimated FT and organic certification contributions to producers’ economic well‐being are higher when account is taken of the relatively higher proportion of self‐consumption among affiliated farmers. But the per capita income effect does not translate into higher productivity owing to a concurrent increase in hours worked.     

全面停伐政策对国有林区居民家庭收入的影响

基于2014—2017年对东北、内蒙古国有林区的调研数据,采用双重差分模型(DID)评估全面停伐政策对国有林区居民家庭的人均工资性收入和家庭人均收入的影响。研究结果表明:全面停伐政策的实施对林区居民家庭人均工资性收入和人均收入均存在消极影响;家中有人在其他企事业单位上班有利于促进国有林区居民家庭人均工资性收入和人均收入的增长;从事农林经营不利于国有林区居民家庭人均工资性收入增长,虽然通过获得农林经营收入可以在一定程度上填补工资性收入的减少,但是对家庭人均收入无显著消极影响。因此,建议国家林业与草原局对国有林区居民家庭进行专项资金扶持;转岗分流安排富余劳动力;改变国有林区居民保守的就业观念并鼓励自主创业等。     

全面建成小康社会对农村居民肉类消费的影响——基于中国农村微观经济数据的实证研究

[目的]基于中国农村微观经济数据,分析全面建成小康社会对农村居民肉类消费的影响。[方法]文章运用恩格尔模型和考虑"零消费"问题的近乎理想需求系统模型(AIDS)的两阶段模型,对全国8个省份的农户数据进行实证分析。[结果]首先,肉类食品的需求收入弹性均为正值,农村居民肉类需求随着收入增长而增加。其次,肉类食品需求收入弹性存在差异,其中,禽肉收入弹性最大,牛羊肉收入弹性最小。再次,不考虑"零消费"问题时,牛羊肉的需求弹性被高估0.12～0.29,猪肉的需求弹性被高估0～0.02。最后,到达全面建成小康社会的标准时,目前低于收入标准的农村居民人均猪肉、禽肉和牛羊肉消费量将分别增加3.42kg、1.86kg和0.57kg,消费结构将进一步优化。[结论]全面建成小康社会将促进农村居民人均收入增长,进而扩大人均肉类消费量、优化肉类消费结构;农村家庭户主受教育程度与肉类消费具有正向相关关系。     

Do the BRICs and Emerging Markets Differ in their Agrifood Imports?

This study develops an import demand model to explore the role of income in explaining the trade performance of low‐, middle‐ and high‐income countries with a special emphasis on Brazil, Russia, India and China – the BRIC economies. The study estimates the impact of the growth in per capita income on the trade of agrifood products using data from 52 countries and 20 agrifood products for the years 1990–2006. The results suggest that China, Russia and Brazil now have more income elastic import demands than other middle‐income countries. Conversely, the income elasticities of import demand in India are similar to other low‐income countries and for the most part statistically equal to zero.     

经济增长与收入再分配对湖北省农村贫困变动的影响

本文通过对湖北省否受益并相关结论贫困变动由人均收入水平和收入分配不平等程度两个因素共同决定。贫困变动的增长再分配分解，考察1997—2003年间如上两个因素村贫困变动的影响方向和程度，进而分析在经济增长过程中穷人是算和比较基尼系数，考察在此期间农村居民的收入分配状况，得出对农测。     

贫困地区农业结构调整对农民收入的影响——重庆五区县实证分析

本文利用重庆贫困地区5个区县619户农户实地调查资料,着重从农产品商品率和现金收入的变化,分析了农业结构调整对贫困地区农户人均纯收入的影响。同时探讨了农业结构调整对农户增收的影响因素。经过计算和分析认为:农民人均纯收入的变化中,贡献率最大的是外出打工等工资性收入,农业纯收入增量的贡献率不到1/3。且农业纯收入增量中,由于商品率提高带来的现金收入增量也不到一半。因此可以说,农业结构调整对农户收入的提高产生了一定影响,但作用有限。另外,农村基础设施建设,如道路、电力通讯等设施建设是影响农业结构调整对农民增收作用的重要因素。     

Economic development,food demand and the consequences for agricultural resource requirements: an application to Indonesia

We analyse food demand patterns of Indonesian households from a resource intensity perspective and quantify the impact of changed demand patterns on the use of three major resource inputs: fossil fuel; land; and water in agricultural production. Using Indonesian Family Life Survey data, 13 major food items (which constitute 70 per cent of food expenditure) are categorised into low, moderate and high resource intensity, and income elasticity and Engel curves are estimated for the period from 1997 to 2007. Our results show that income growth in Indonesia is associated with demand patterns that are more resource intensive. By 2007, per capita requirements of fossil fuel, land and water increased by 42.7 per cent (3.13 MJ), 44.9 per cent (1.24 m²) and 50.4 per cent (2.1 kL), respectively, relative to 1997. The results imply that, at least for Indonesia, changed food demand patterns resulting from economic development will increase the demand for natural resources substantially.     

Technological change and agricultural household income distribution: theory and evidence from China

This article applies a general equilibrium model to analyse the impact of new rice technology on household income and uses agricultural household survey data from China to test the implications of this model. It is shown that, when a new rice technology becomes available, the adopting household will reallocate resources to increase rice production and reduce the production of other goods. Meanwhile, the non-adopting households will do the opposite. Thus, the income from rice becomes increasingly concentrated in the adopting households and income from non-rice becomes increasingly concentrated in the non-adopting households. If only one source of income is examined, the introduction of new rice technology increases the inequality of income distribution in rural areas. But, if the total household income is examined, the distributional inequality is mitigated.     

精准扶贫政策对城乡居民收入差距的影响研究——以山西省为例

[目的]实施精准扶贫政策以来,我国共减少贫困人口6 853万人。在脱贫攻坚取得重大进展的背景下,对比政策实施前后城乡居民收入的变化,对于揭示精准扶贫政策的作用具有重要意义。[方法]以贫困范围广、贫困程度深的山西省为对象,基于2010—2017年精准扶贫政策实施前后的统计数据,采用双重差分模型研究不同贫困程度县(区)城乡居民收入差距变化。[结果]精准扶贫政策的效果主要为:贫困县的城乡居民收入差距缩小幅度约为非贫困县的3倍,而其中国家级贫困县的收入差距缩小幅度约为省级贫困县的2倍;共同趋势检验和安慰剂检验的结果验证了模型的稳健性。对比采用最小二乘法(OLS)得到的精准扶贫政策效果,揭示出如果忽略城乡居民收入差距随时间的变化,则会高估精准扶贫政策效果约1.5～4倍,再次证明模型的有效性。通过引入控制变量探讨政策以外的其他影响因素,发现城镇化水平、经济发展水平、第三产业占比、人均农业产值有助于缩小城乡居民收入差距,人均土地状况会扩大城乡居民收入差距,固定资产投资和消费水平的影响不显著。[结论]精准扶贫政策对于缩小城乡居民收入差距具有显著效果,且对深度贫困地区的影响更明显。     

An econometric analysis of rice consumption in the People's Republic of China

Rice is the most important staple food in the People's Republic of China (PRO. In many Asian countries rice appears to have become an inferior good, with income increases leading to declines in per capita consumption as other food products are substituted for rice. In this study, human rice consumption is analyzed with a model that allows income elasticities to vary with income levels. An additional equation accounting for rice disappearance as seed, livestock feed, industrial uses and exports is also estimated. The results of the analysis indicate that rice has become an inferior good in China and per capita consumption is likely to decline in the future. Population growth and the growing use of rice for other purposes means that total rice disappearance will continue to increase although at a rate that is slower than has historically been the case. The predicted changes in rice consumption will create pressures to adjust production and trade patterns for rice as well as other agricultural products.     

Income distribution in rice–growing villages during the post-Green Revolution periods: the Philippine case, 1985 and 1998

This paper aims to examine changes in household income sources and its impact on household income distribution in the post‐Green Revolution periods in 1985 and 1998 in the rural Philippines. We found that there has been a structural shift of household income away from farm in favor of nonfarm labor income sources. This finding indicates that rural development is being led by nonfarm sectors. Such a shift has resulted in an increase in household income inequality as the distribution of nonfarm income has become less equal over time and was markedly more unequal than that of farm income in 1998.     

中高收入阶段农民增收的国际经验及中国农民增收趋势

本文总结了工业化国家(地区)促进农民增收的主要经验并得出对中国的重要启示。中高收入阶段中国农民增收将面临经济发展方式转变、区域经济增长新格局涌现、劳动年龄人口趋紧、农村综合改革继续深化等因素影响,到2020年中国农民人均纯收入有望达到1万元,工资性收入成为农民增收主力,农民收入的区域差异将缩小。     

Determinants of households’ resistance against land acquisition for mining: Experiences at Talcher coalfields in India

In the context of people's protests against land acquisition for mining in the Indian state of Odisha, the present paper attempts to identify the underlying household level factors. The paper uses primary data collected from the Talcher coalfield region of the state and estimates limited dependent variable models. It is found that the households belonging to the scheduled tribe category or having larger per capita income or with greater access to basic amenities are more inclined to give up their land for mining. However, such inclination is lower when they have more land or better education or are concerned about deforestation and pollution. As regards the amount, the paper finds that households with higher per capita income or larger per capita asset base or greater access to basic amenities desire to give up more land. On the other hand, willingness to give up land is less either when households possess more land holding or when there is a larger male workforce in the family.     

新冠肺炎疫情对2020年农业农村发展的影响评估与应对建议

由于种养业季节性强、农民工流动性大、农村防护条件差,疫情对农业农村发展的影响具有全面性和持久性。研究显示,疫情防控导致的物流中断,家禽养殖企业遭遇生存危机,导致短期肉价下跌和2020年肉类供需紧张局面加剧;果蔬滞销、粮食销售延迟以及部分农产品消费抑制,将使相当部分种植户2020年收益面临下滑;疫情期间的延期复工和疫情后的长期停工会导致农民工就业人数下降205万人至351.1万人,2020年农民工人均工资收入名义增长速度可能将下降1.45至2.46个百分点。综合考虑疫情对各项收入来源的影响,2020年农村居民人均可支配收入名义增长速度可能将下降2.59至3.59个百分点。因此,应加紧建立应急储备和加大供需调节力度,以补贴和政策性信贷支持引导龙头企业帮助小农户度过难关,加大对农民工再就业培训和返乡创业的支持,多渠道稳定农民收入。     

基于空间马尔科夫链的农村经济发展水平分析——以四川省为例

以2000~2013年四川省各地市(州)农民人均纯收入和人均生活消费支出表征农村经济发展水平,通过传统马尔科夫链和空间马尔科夫链方法,分别构建农村经济发展水平的非空间和空间马尔科夫转移概率矩阵,对研究时段的农村经济发展水平的时空格局演变特征进行分析与预测。研究结果表明:(1)各地区农民人均收入水平和消费水平均沿着其最初类型稳步演进,农村经济发展水平存在着"俱乐部趋同"现象。(2)地区间的农村经济发展水平变化受到所邻地区的影响,其在空间上的趋同过程不独立。(3)农村经济发展水平相互作用呈现出显著的空间分异,较发达的川南地区发生向下转移,不发达或欠发达的川西地区则发生向上转移,四川省各地区农村经济发展水平差异将进一步缩小。(4)地区类型转移受周围地区的影响,表现为农民消费水平的空间趋同变化明显于收入水平的空间趋同变化。     

Income Growth and International Meat Consumption

With technological adoption and trade liberalization, per capita incomes have grown rapidly in industrialized countries. Income growth has resulted in increased per capita meat consumption. Projecting future meat consumption requires quantifying the relationship between per capita income and meat consumption. This study estimates the relationship between income growth and meat consumption using data from 32 countries. Beef, pork, poultry, and lamb income elasticities declined at different rates as income levels increased. High income countries have experienced relatively constant per capita meat consumption. Low income counmes with low income growth have had stagnant meat consumption. Low income countries with growing incomes have experienced increasing meat consumption. Countries such as China characterized by relatively large income growth and moderate population growth have experienced large increases in total meat consumption.     

Advertising Expenditures and the Consumption of Alcoholic Beverages

The theory of consumer behavior is applied to the estimation of a demand svstem. Monthly data on alcoholic beverages (beer, wine, liquor, soft dhnks) from the province of Ontario in Canada are analyzed. Before estimating the linear approximate almost ideal demand system (LA/AIDS), unit root and cointegration tests are implemented. Budget shares, per capita advertising expenditures, real total expenditure, prices and per capita consumption are found to be non-stationary. The budget share, the advertising expenditures, the prices and the real total expenditure are cointegrated for each beverage. Own and cross-price elasticities, income elasticities and own and cross-advertising elasticities are calculated from the estimated or the demand system. Based on own-price elasticities and income elasticities, alcohol consumption is consistent with the law of demand and the products analyzed are normal goods. The estimation of income and advertising effects is important for analyzing the need for, and the effectiveness of, potential control policies. The advertising elasticities are small but statistically significant. This suggests that advertising may promote alcoholic beverage consumption. The estimated inelastic demands for beer and wine suggest that the primary purpose of high excise taxes levied by the Federal and Provincial governments is to raise government revenues and not to discourage consumption.