工资分布的性别差异:分位数分解方法

在研究工资性别差距时,绝大多数研究关注的是男女在平均工资上的差别。从横截面数据和时序数据两个方面,本文发现研究工资分布相对于研究平均工资有很大的优越性。本文还使用分位数分解方法对男女在工资分布上的差异进行因素分解分析,发现女性在经验回报率和经验年限分布方面处于劣势地位,在教育回报率和教育年限分布方面的境况并不差,甚至在教育回报率方面处于优势地位。解决男女工资不平等的问题,应该重视女性在工作中的升迁问题。提高退休年龄也会提高女性的工资,特别是中低等收入女性的工资,这也有助于解决男女工资不平等的问题。     

基于分位数回归分解的农民工性别工资差异研究

本文使用基于分位数回归的分解方法研究了农民工的性别工资差异.结果发现,农民工的性别工资差异表现为"天花板效应";但在工资分布的最高端,性别工资差异又开始缩小.对此,本文给出了基于统计歧视和社会保护政策的解释.而城镇职工的性别工资差异则表现为"粘地板效应".在农民工工资分布的高端,性别差异表现出与城镇职工工资分布低端相似的趋势.这一点表明在工资分布高端的女性农民工已经开始突破二元分割体制,获得了一定程度的社会保护.     

二元结构下我国城镇劳动力市场中的性别工资差异研究

文章利用CHIP2002和CHIP2013数据,采用基于RIF无条件分位数回归的分解法,比较了不同时间维度和不同分位数水平上,我国农民工和城镇职工的性别工资差距及其形成机理。研究结果表明：第一,我国城镇劳动力市场中的性别工资差距不断扩大,其中农民工的性别工资差距全方位扩大,且低分位数上的增速最快,致使2013年其各分位数上的性别工资差距超过城镇职工。其中,低收入城镇职工与中等收入农民工群体的性别工资差距及其来源具有相似特征。第二,系数效应是造成城镇职工和农民工性别工资差异的主要因素,两个群体的性别歧视均有所增强。但与城镇职工相比,农民工群体的性别歧视较大且增速较快。由于低收入群体中性别歧视的快速增长,城镇劳动力市场中遭受性别歧视最严重的群体由2002年的高收入的城镇女性职工和高收入的女性农民工,转变为2013年中等收入的女性农民工和低收入的城镇女性职工。第三,尽管针对中高收入城镇女性职工的市场前歧视和市场歧视均有所弱化,但低收入的城镇女性人力资本水平及其回报率仍低于同类男性,呈现与女性农民工相似的特点。上述结果意味着,城镇劳动力市场中不同户籍、不同收入水平的女性,遭受着不同程度的性别歧视,应针对不同群体采用差别化的性别干预政策。     

健康人力资本与性别工资差异

现有对性别工资差异的研究大多是基于教育、经验等人力资本对工资的影响进行分析而忽视了健康人力资本的作用。本文运用中国健康与营养调查数据,将健康人力资本引入工资决定模型,对我国劳动力市场上健康人力资本对工资的影响以及性别工资差异进行了实证分析。研究发现：健康人力资本是影响我国居民工资收入的重要因素;我国劳动力市场上存在明显的性别工资差异,女性工资显著低于男性;利用Oaxaca—Cotton的分解方法发现性别工资差异中大约只有20％可以被个体特征合理解释,余下的部分被认为是对女性的歧视和没能观测到的因素所致。健康人力资本对工资的边际贡献在性别之间的差异是性别工资差异的重要来源。     

珠三角技能人才性别工资差异的分位数回归分析——基于东莞市职业技能人才调查的实证研究

本文利用东莞市职业技能人才调查的微观数据,通过分位数分解的方法,研究了男女技能人才在整个工资分布上的差异及其影响因素.研究结果表明,随着收入水平的提高,技能人才群体间的性别工资差异逐步扩大,但性别工资歧视程度不断降低.在收入分布的低分位数上,歧视是造成性别工资差距的主要原因；而在高分位数上,个人资源禀赋造成的差异则成为性别工资差距的主要来源.     

性别工资差异缘何扩大?——基于职业分割的分析视角

基于职业分割的视角,本文建立了中国城镇居民的就业方程和工资方程,提出工资差异变动分解方法,并依据中国城镇家庭收入调查数据,对城镇劳动力市场中的性别工资差异变动进行分解分析。研究结果表明,1995年至2002年间,性别工资差异呈扩大趋势;性别工资差异的扩大完全是由性别歧视的加剧造成的;性别歧视的加剧不仅体现在职业内部针对女性工资歧视的加剧,而且体现在针对女性职业分割的就业歧视的加剧。因此,政府设计和实施公平的就业制度和工资分配制度,将有助于抑制性别工资差异的持续扩大。     

转轨时期职工工资收入的决定因素

本文利用国家统计局和中国社会科学院的调查数据,分析影响我国职工工资收入的因素。研究发现,劳动者受教育年限、工作经验、所处的地理区域、所在的行业和部门,以及性别等因素对工资都有显著的影响。相对于中西部地区,东部地区的教育回报率更高,但工作经验的回报率稍低一些。继续推动市场化改革不仅有利于提高居民的工资收入,也有利于缩小收入差距。     

中国的工资性别差距及其分解——性别歧视在多大程度上存在?

本文运用中国健康与营养调查(CHNS)2006年的数据对劳动者的工资性别差距进行测度和分解,研究发现在控制个人特征和单位特征后,男性劳动者的小时收入比女性劳动者高23.8%,考虑就业选择偏差后的工资性别差距更大一些,达25.2%。由于劳动者特征差异形成的工资差异很小,而且往往是女性由于个人特征占优而有助于缩小差距。差异的更大部分是由收益率差异造成的,这在一定程度上反映了性别歧视的存在。主要表现在工龄方面受到歧视,女性的工龄收益率低或者为负值。进一步考虑选择性偏差和找到工作概率进行分解的结果说明,女性在就业获得方面受到歧视,这会严重影响其与男性劳动者的收入差距。     

中国垄断性行业与竞争性行业的收入差距:基于北京市微观数据的研究

垄断性行业的平均收入水平比竞争性行业大约高出50%左右,无论是包括全部行业在内的总收入差距还是垄断性行业和竞争性行业的内部收入差距,均达到比较高的水平,基尼系数接近或超过了0.4.在垄断性行业和竞争性行业之间的收入差距中,禀赋特征差异大约解释了其中的四分之三,禀赋回报率差异大约解释了其中的四分之一.由于其收入决定机制与竞争性行业不同,垄断性行业就业者获得了较高的溢价.垄断性行业和竞争性行业各自内部收入差距的主要形成因素是受教育水平的不均等,其次有城市劳动力市场对农业户籍劳动力的歧视、职业收入差异等.     

行业选择与工资差异——来自大学毕业生劳动力市场的证据

本文利用全国2008届大学毕业生求职与工作能力抽样调查数据,分析高、低收入行业的就业选择与工资收入的影响因素,并测算行业工资差异的大小及构成。结果发现,男性、211院校毕业或有良好家庭背景的大学毕业生更容易进入高收入行业工作,能力对行业选择与工资收入影响显著;行业工资差异高达41%,其中超过80%的差异归因于行业分割,余下差异中地区因素占主导地位;去除垄断性行业能够降低高、低收入行业工资差异与分割比重,并提升能力解释力。     

Estimation of Public–Private Wage Differentials in Turkey with Sample Correction

The aim of this study is to determine how the change in the balance between public–private sector employments affected public and private earnings during the 1990s and 2000s in Turkey. We use the Oaxaca–Blinder and quantile decomposition methods to determine the wage gap between public and private sectors utilizing the 1994 Household Income Distribution and Consumption Expenditure Survey and the 2008 Household Budget Survey conducted by the Turkish Statistical Institute. The study determined that the primary difference in the average wages between sectors arises from the differences in the endowments without correction for gender. After adjusting for correction using quantile regression, we find that the difference in the endowments between sectors at lower quantiles explains the majority of the raw wage gap; whereas a substantial amount of the raw wage gap is explained by the sector effect at higher quantiles.     

Equal Convergence? Convergence Patterns Among Immigrants by Occupation

This study examines the immigrant-native wage gap in the United States using 2019 Annual Social and Economic Supplement data from the Current Population Survey. Ordinary least squares regression analyses were used to estimate the wages of immigrants while controlling for human capital characteristics, sociodemographic factors, and time since arrival in the United States. The results demonstrate that the wage gap converges with more time spent in the United States, likely due to increased work experience and language proficiency, but does not completely diminish. Separate regressions are conducted for different occupational groups. Occupations are shown to be a large contributor to the differential, as wages differ significantly more in unskilled occupations such as manual labor or transportation. The possibility of labor market discrimination is explored as a reason for the wage gap, with the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition showing that only 68% of the wage gap can be explained by the included explanatory variables.

     

Gender Difference in Returns to Education Independent of Gender Wage Gap in Korea*

This study examined the difference between male and female groups’ return on investment (ROI) in education independent of the average gender wage gap. Women’s additional ROI in education was significant and positively estimated. Furthermore, the ROI in women’s education was consistently higher than that in men regardless of educational stage, except for graduate education. These gender differences were greater in the younger generation than in the older generation and have decreased significantly in the recent ten years in high school education. Although the additional ROI in women’s education was positive in the field of culture and arts, education’s effect on wage increases in professional occupations was less than in men, especially in the fields of law and medicine. In addition, we show that gender differences in ROI in education were countercyclical. A base effect, large wage declines for low‐educated women during recessions, could explain this phenomenon. However, coinciding with the existence of positive cash flow news in the stock market that promises good business performance, a significant wage increase among highly educated women was found.     

Something in the way she moves: a fresh look at an old gap

In this paper, we propose a new decomposition as a useful complementto traditional methods of explaining the gender pay gap andthe pay gap between full-time and part-time women. We decomposeaverage earnings into the contribution of the average startingwage for workers entering paid work from non-employment, averagewage growth for those in continuous employment, and the fractionof workers entering employment. We use this to inform discussionof the pay gap, first, between men and women and, second, betweenfull-time and part-time women. Comparing men and women usingdata drawn from the British Household Panel Survey, we findno significant differences in wage growth whilst in continuousemployment: the source of the gender pay gap comes from theentrant pay gap and the share of entrants. The study of longer-runchanges leads us to expect a modest further narrowing of thisgap. Comparisons of full- and part-time women indicate no differencein entry pay shares and little difference in wage growth. Thebulk of the full- to part-time gap is explained in terms ofthe fact that women working part-time are much more likely tobe entrants to the labour market.     

Occupational Segregation and Gender Wage Differentials: Evidence from Malaysia

In Malaysia, the participation of women in the labor market has increased over time. However, occupational segregation and wage differentials continue to be prevalent between men and women in the labor market. The present paper investigates gender‐related occupational segregation and wage differentials based on data collected from 7135 working households in Peninsular Malaysia in 2011. The wage decomposition model introduced by Brown et al. (1980) is used to examine the determinants of gender‐related wage differentials. The results suggest that differences within occupations account for the largest portion of the wage gap between men and women. The results also indicate that wage discrimination within occupations plays an important role in the gender wage gap, while sample selection bias plays an important role in the examination of gender wage gaps.     

Job tasks and wages in the Japanese labor market: Evidence from wage functions

Based on the microdata from the Basic Survey on Wage Structure and the original survey, we estimate the Mincerian wage function, incorporating job tasks, to examine the importance of job task wage premiums as well as long-term changes in the Japanese labor market. In the estimation, we found that the association between abstract tasks and wages is positive and that a one standard deviation increase in the abstract task scores was associated with a 21.2% wage premium, while that of routine and manual task wage premiums are negative. We also found that the total explanatory power of three task scores (routine, abstract, and manual tasks) is higher than that of the education dummies or the major occupation group dummies. We also confirmed two testable implications from the Roy model regarding the workers’ self-selection into occupations in the Japanese labor market. These findings are similar to those obtained by Autor and Handel (2013). On the other hand, we found no major changes between 2005 and 2016 in the coefficients of routine, abstract, or manual task scores as well as their explanatory powers in the wage function. We then observed that demand for labor increased in many occupations involving many non-routine or manual tasks, but at the same time, the supply of labor to those occupations also increased. Therefore, we discussed that the change in labor demand and supply may be one of the reasons for the stable relationship between job tasks and wages.     

The gender wage gap in Myanmar: Adding insult to injury?

Using two surveys from 2017, we analyze the gender wage gap for urban workers in Myanmar. We start from a standard wage equation and condition on education, experience, health and a small set of household demographic attributes. Subsequently we control for differences in occupational choice and sector of employment. We estimate the models with sample selection correction and this leads to estimated average wage offers that are lower than the observed average wages for women. Selection into wage work results in a workforce where female wage-workers have higher levels of education compared to their male counterparts. However, average wages for female workers continue to be 29% lower than male average wages. Differences in observable attributes do not account for this gap. Instead, it is associated with a lower base wage and lower remuneration of women’s experience. Going beyond the traditional decomposition methods, we utilize our matched employer–employee survey to generate exact comparisons of female and male production workers with equal levels of education and experience, employed in the same enterprises. Even in this setting, we find a gender wage gap of 13%. Our analysis thus indicates discrimination against women in Myanmar’s labor markets.     

Internal migration and external benefit: The impact of labor migration on the wage structure in urban China

China provides a unique experience of massive internal (within-country) migration but with high segregation of jobs between migrants and natives. Thus, migration has a complementary external effect on native wages: the elasticities of complementarity of migrants are about 31.7%, 20.3%, and 19.9% for native workers with a college, high school and less than high school education, respectively. After the wage is deflated by the housing price, the elasticities decline to 11%, 8.2% and −4.4% for the respective education groups, which provides the lower-bound analysis results. In addition, migration has widened wage dispersion, as well as increasing the education premium and residual inequality. The elasticity of substitution in jobs between migrants and natives is very low due to the hukou restriction, and increasing proportions of migrants in any given labor force widen the migrant/native wage gap. Job segregation is an important factor that explains particular labor market findings in China.     

An Investigation of the Female–Male Wage Gap During the Industrial Revolution in Britain

During the industrial revolution women's wages were substantially lower than men's. This article documents the wage gap and shows that in most cases it can be explained without reference to wage discrimination. First, the wage data we have overestimate the wage gap; correcting for biases due to measurement error reduces the size of the wage gap. Second, because differences in productivity were substantial, the corrected wage gap is consistent with these.     

Wage differentials between urban and rural-urban migrant workers in China

Since the end of the 1980s, the number of migrants working in the urban labor market has increased dramatically. However, migrant workers are treated differently from urban workers. In this paper we examine the labor market discrimination against rural migrants from the point of view of wage differentials using CHIP-2007 data. We apply Jann pooled method to deal with index number problem and use Heckman two step model to correct selection problem when decomposing the wage gap. The decomposition results show that a significant difference in wage gains persists between the two groups as late as 2007. In 2007 migrants only earned 49% of urban workers' income and 17% of the wage gap cannot be explained by observed factors. In detail, differences in educational attainment, work experience and distribution across industry, occupation, and ownership of enterprises account for most of the explained wage gap.