不平等的度量与分解

本文从实证研究需要的角度,较为完整地叙述了收入分配的度量及其分解,包括常用不平等指数的构建和计算,随机占优分析,以及基尼系数、泰尔指数和基于回归方程的分解。虽然没有对应用性文献进行综述,但简要讨论了研究我国不平等时应该注意的主要问题。     

中国西部地区农村内部不平等状况研究-基于贵州住户调查数据的分析

与以往使用抽样调查数据的研究不同,本文利用在贵州省普定县随机抽取三个村庄的全户调查数据,运用三种针对不平等指数的分解方法,旨在分析西部地区农村内部不平等状况、主要影响因素及其原因,以便为瞄准住户的扶贫战略提供新的实证依据。研究发现,即使在村级层面,贫困地区农户收入和支出的不平等状况仍然很严重,收入的基尼系数高达0.44,GE指数为0.34;通过对运用组内组间收入和支出GE指数分解方法发现,村内的不平等程度(贡献率为90%左右)比村间(贡献率为10%左右)的更为严重;通过运用收入来源和支出构成GE指数分解方法发现,农业和非农收入都是西部地区农村人口的主要收入来源(分别占总收入的41.1%和42.3%),但是非农收入却是造成收入不平等的最主要因素(贡献率为68.8%);通过运用基于回归分析的Shapley值分解方法发现,家庭资产、特别是土地的拥有情况,是造成收入不平等的主要因素。文章最后根据研究结果,针对西部农村地区土地政策、社会保障体系、扶贫政策等提出了相应的建议。     

中国西部地区农村内部不平等状况研究——基于贵州住户调查数据的分析

与以往使用抽样调查数据的研究不同,本文利用在贵州省普定县随机抽取三个村庄的全户调查数据,运用三种针对不平等指数的分解方法,旨在分析西部地区农村内部不平等状况、主要影响因素及其原因,以便为瞄准住户的扶贫战略提供新的实证依据。研究发现,即使在村级层面,贫困地区农户收入和支出的不平等状况仍然很严重,收入的基尼系数高达0．44,GE指数为0．34;通过对运用组内组间收入和支出GE指数分解方法发现,村内的不平等程度（贡献率为90％左右）比村间（贡献率为10％左右）的更为严重;通过运用收入来源和支出构成GE指数分解方法发现,农业和非农收入都是西部地区农村入口的主要收入来源（分别占总收入的41．1％和42．3％）,但是非农收入却是造成收入不平等的最主要因素（贡献率为68．8％）;通过运用基于回归分析的Shapley值分解方法发现,家庭资产、特别是土地的拥有情况,是造成收入不平等的主要因素。文章最后根据研究结果,针对西部农村地区土地政策、社会保障体系、扶贫政策等提出了相应的建议。     

农地制度、土地细碎化与农民收入不平等

上世纪80年代中期以来,不仅农民收入增长乏力,农村内部的收入不平等也在持续扩大。而在现有众多的研究农民收入不平等的文献中,农地制度对于农民收入不平等的影响在实证研究中却很少涉及。本研究的主要目的就是为了填补这一方面的空白。在家庭联产承包责任制这一制度安排之下,土地"按人分配"而不是"按劳分配",因而必然带来土地的细碎化,本研究从这一现象出发,探讨农地制度对于农民收入以及收入不平等的影响。其次,现有的很多关于收入不平等的研究中,一般都采用指数分解的方法,这样所得到的结论可能有很大的偏差,而在本研究中,最新的基于回归方程的夏普里值分解法将被采用,这将克服常规指数分解分析的局限。经过实证研究,本文发现土地细碎化与农民的总收入水平呈正相关的关系,同时,土地细碎化还有利于农民收入不平等的缩小。这就表明现有的农地制度起到了公平分配生产资料,并缩小农民收入不平等的积极作用。     

对测量不平等的泰尔指数和基尼系数比较

测量收入不平等以及研究贫困问题主要采用的两种方法就是利用基尼系数和泰尔指数。基尼系数的计算本身存在三种最为常用的区别,而泰尔指数在组内组间分解上更优于基尼系数,但是由于其计算收入转移上的敏感性,使得其与基尼系数相比更可能高估不平等。通过对比这两种计算方法,可以对不同的微观数据采用不同的方法。     

老龄化对我国农村消费和收入不平等的影响

本文从生命周期理论框架出发,考察了我国农村消费及收入不平等与年龄及人口老龄化之间的关系。我们采用CHIP 1988年、1995年和2002年三年的微观数据,利用方差分解和回归分解方法,将我国农村总的消费和收入不平等分解为出生组间不平等、出生组内不平等和老龄化效应。结果发现,在我国农村,消费不平等要低于收入不平等;其次,在各个时期,组内不平等都占主导地位;最后,老龄化对不平等的效应很小。     

公共转移对中国城镇收入不平等的影响

基于1986-2009年城镇入户调查的微观数据,本文采用GE指数及其区域分解法,分别根据不同的地区、所有制及产业进行划分,深入而全面地考察了公共转移收入对中国城镇居民收入不平等的影响.结果发现,无论是根据地区、所有制还是产业进行区域分解,公共转移收入都对降低城镇居民收入不平等起到了重要作用.笔者还运用收入来源分解法,分析了公共转移收入对城镇居民收入不平等的贡献率变化.研究表明,公共转移对总的收入不平等的贡献率是略微上升.结论是公共转移对降低城镇居民收入不平等起到了一定的作用,但仍有较大的改进余地.     

解释中国农村区域间的收入不平等:一种基于回归方程的分解方法

本文提出了一个分解不平等的框架 ,在这一框架中 ,诸如收入之类的因变量的不平等可以分解为相关的回归方程中自变量或代理变量的贡献。本文所提出的分析框架可以被运用于分解任何不平等指标 ,并且对回归模型的限制条件也不多。通过将Box Cox和Box Tidwel收入决定函数结合起来的方式 ,本文定量分析了导致中国农村地区间收入不平等的根源     

消费不平等的度量、出生组分解和形成机制-兼与收入不平等比较

消费不平等可以反映居民之间真实的福利差异.本文利用1989-2009年CHNS数据,对耐用品存量消费不平等进行了度量和出生组分解,探讨了耐用品存量消费不平等的形成机制,并与收入不平等进行了比较.研究发现:消费不平等一直大于收入不平等,但消费不平等不断下降而收入不平等却日益上升;20世纪70年代出生组具有更高的收入不平等和更低的消费不平等;无论是分时期还是分城乡,收入不平等都是消费不平等变化的最重要因素.     

一个新的基尼系数子群分解公式-兼论中国总体基尼系数的城乡分解

基尼系数的子群分解公式有多种形式,不同分解公式的实证结论有较大差异。本文分析了群内基尼系数的权数以及群间不平等指标所应具备的基尼系数内涵,提出了一个新的群间不平等指标,从而给出了一个新的基尼系数子群分解公式。利用这个新的基尼系数子群分解公式,本文实证分析了近年来中国总体基尼系数的城乡分解。实证结果表明,农村群间不平等对总体基尼系数的贡献率最大,城镇群内不平等的贡献率不断上升,这是促使中国总体基尼系数不断上升的两个重要因素。     

Decomposing US regional income inequality from 1969 to 2009

This article analyses changes in levels and composition of income inequality among US counties from 1969 to 2009. It also decomposes inequality using the Theil coefficient into between-State and within-State inequality. The article finds that income inequality has increased in the period studied with between-State inequality decreasing and within-State inequality increasing. We subsequently decompose income inequality into the proportion arising from differences in productivity and employment–population ratios across counties. The results suggest that inequality arising from differentials in labour productivity has fallen over the period studied while those arising from employment–population ratio differences have increased.     

World income inequality and its components

About 65 percent of total income inequality in the non-communist world is accounted for by international inequality, and about 35 percent by inequality within nations. More than 70 percent of international inequality is accounted for by the inequality of two major regions.     

中国农村的收入差距与健康

随着收入差距的扩大,收入分配对健康和健康不平等的影响日益受到关注。本文利用中国健康营养调查(CHNS)1997年和2000年农村的面板数据回答两个问题:收入差距对健康的影响以及影响健康的方式;收入差距的扩大是否会导致健康不平等的加剧,尤其是低收入人群的健康是否受到更为不利的影响。研究发现,首先收入差距对健康的影响存在滞后效应;其次,收入差距对健康的影响呈现“倒U”型,在收入差距较高时,收入差距对健康的影响主要为负向的,一个可能的原因是收入差距影响到公共卫生设施的供给。再次,收入差距的扩大会加强收入效应,其含义是如果低收入人群的收入更容易受到负向冲击,那么收入差距对低收入人群的健康更为不利。     

Income Inequality and Economic Growth: Evidence from American Data

While most cross-country studies find a negative relationship between income inequality and economic growth, studies that use panel data suggest the presence of a positive relationship between inequality and growth. This paper uses a cross-state panel for the United States to assess the relationship between inequality and growth. Using both standard fixed effects and GMM estimations, this paper does not find evidence of a positive relationship between inequality and growth but finds some evidence in support of a negative relationship between inequality and growth. The paper, however, shows that the relationship between inequality and growth is not robust and that small differences in the method used to measure inequality can result in large differences in the estimated relationship between inequality and growth.     

TRENDS IN INEQUALITY USING CONSUMPTION-EXPENDITURES: THE U.S. FROM 1960 TO 1993

While much of the evidence suggests that there was an increase in inequality in the U.S. during the 1980s, the reasons are less evident. Using the U.S. Consumer Expenditure Survey data, we find that the inequality of consumption-expenditures, as well as the inequality of other measures of resources, widened considerably during the 1980s. While previous studies suggest that increasing inequality is mainly due to increases in within group inequality, we show that by decomposing inequality by the interaction of family type and education almost three-fourths of the increase in inequality is accounted for by changes in inequality between groups and by shifts in the population.     

Fairness and inequality tolerance: Evidence from the Life in Transition Survey

This paper examines the link between inequality and individual well-being using household survey data from 27 transition economies, where income inequality increased considerably since 1989. A test of inequality aversion in individual preferences that draws on the Fehr and Schmidt (1999) specification of inequality aversion is proposed, and the difficulties of implementing it in a non-experimental setting are discussed. Estimates based on this model confirm aversion to inequality among individuals both in the pooled sample and separately among the EU and non-EU countries. The Gini index, on the other hand, is unable to capture this negative effect of inequality on well-being. Notably, inequality aversion is not intrinsic. Rather, it appears to be tied to a concern with the fairness of the institutions underlying the distribution of fortunes in society. The evidence is suggestive of inequality of opportunity driving attitudes toward overall inequality.     

Long term trends in fair and unfair inequality in the United States

This article analyses the microeconomic sources of wage inequality in the United States from 1967–2012. Decomposing inequality into factors categorized by degree of personal responsibility, education explains over twice as much of inequality today as 45 years ago. However, neither hours worked nor education, industry, marital status, or geographical location can explain the rise in income inequality. In fact, ‘unfair’ inequality (income disparity derived from non-responsibility factors) has risen faster than ‘fair’ inequality (income disparity derived from responsibility factors), regardless of the set of variables chosen as fair sources of inequality. We further examine income inequalities within gender and racial groups, finding substantial heterogeneity. Overall, using micro data to understand the sources of inequality and how these changes over time can provide better information for policymakers motivated to combat rising inequality.     

When income differences hurt or excite: The nonlinear effect of regional inequality on subjective wellbeing

Combining information from the European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions and the European Social Survey, we investigate the relationship between subjective well-being and income inequality using regional inequality indicators and individual data. We assume that inequality aversion and perception of social mobility affect the impact of regional inequality on subjective well-being in opposite directions. We find evidence of an inverse U-shaped effect of inequality, where inequality starts to have a positive effect on subjective well-being that becomes negative with a switch point before the average of the Gini index for the entire sample. The rationale for our nonlinear finding is that Hirschman's tunnel effect (and the positive effect of perceived social mobility) prevails for low levels of inequality, while inequality aversion and negative relative income effects are relatively stronger when inequality is higher. Robustness checks on different sample splits are consistent with the hypothesis of the two drivers.     

Capitalist systems and income inequality

The paper investigates the relationship between compositional inequality (how the shares of capital and labor income vary along income distribution) and inter-personal income inequality. Using a new methodology and data from 47 countries covering the period 1995–2018, we show that higher compositional inequality is associated with higher inter-personal inequality. This is clearly shown by Latin American countries and India. Nordic countries are exceptional because they combine high compositional inequality with low inter-personal inequality. Their exceptionalism is attenuated when pension income received from largely government-mandated accumulated savings is added to capital income. The analysis shows the theoretical possibility of societies where low compositional inequality may be combined with high income inequality. Currently, China and the United States come closest to that position.     

Consumption,income and earnings inequality in Britain

This paper presents an analysis of the trends in inequality across income, earnings and consumption in Britain since 1978. It documents the episodic nature of inequality growth over this period largely dominated by the inequality ‘boom’ in earnings inequality of the 1980s. It builds a consistent picture across these key measures of inequality to provide a coherent link between the microeconomic and macroeconomic analysis of the evolution of inequality.