Cultural variation in response to strategic emotions in negotiations

This research examined how culture influences the effectiveness of the strategic displays of emotions in negotiations. We predicted that in cross-cultural negotiation settings, East Asian negotiators who highly regarded cultural values that are consistent with communicating respect as humility and deference would be more likely to accept an offer from an opposing party who displayed positive as opposed to negative emotion. With a sample of East Asian MBA students, the results of Study 1 confirmed this prediction. Study 2 results replicated this finding with a sample of Hong Kong executive managers and also found they were less likely to accept an offer from a negotiator displaying negative emotion than Israeli executive managers who did not hold humility and deference in such high regard. Implications for strategic display of emotions in cross-cultural settings are discussed.     

I Expected More from You: The Influence of Close Relationships and Perspective Taking on Negotiation Offers

Three experimental studies show that interpersonal relationships influence the expectations of negotiators at the negotiation table. That is, negotiators expect more generous negotiation offers from close others (Study 1), and when expectations are not met, negative emotions arise, resulting in negative economic and relational outcomes (Study 2). Finally, a boundary condition for the effect of interpersonal relationships on negotiation expectations is shown: perspective taking leads the parties to expect less from friends than from acquaintances (Study 3). The findings suggest that perspective taking helps negotiators reach agreement in relationships. The article concludes with implications for practice and future research directions.     

“I am Disgusted by Your Proposal”: The Effects of a Strategic Flinch in Negotiations

To flinch in negotiations refers to verbal or physical displays of shock, disgust, or disbelief made in response to an opening offer. We investigated the impact of advising negotiators to strategically flinch in distributive bargaining. In experiment 1, negotiators who flinched claimed significantly more value than negotiators who did not flinch. Targets of a flinch, however, viewed the negotiation relationship less positively than negotiators in a control condition. Yet, flinching appeared to have no effect on the target negotiators’ perceptions of how well they did. In experiment 2, the notion that a subtle flinch might still facilitate value claiming but without imperilling the bargaining relationship was supported. Implications for negotiation theory and practice, and directions for future research, are discussed.     

The effects of reciprocation wariness on negotiation behavior and outcomes

This study examined the influence of reciprocation wariness, a general fear of exploitation in interpersonal relationships, on negotiators’ motivational orientation, direct information sharing and negotiation outcomes. We predicted that low-wary negotiators are more likely to be prosocial and to engage in direct information sharing, and low-wary negotiators will perceive their opponents more positively after the negotiation. We asked 150 graduate students of business administration to formed 75 dyads to participate in a simulated business negotiation, each taking the role of a buyer or a seller. The results showed that reciprocation wariness had a significant effect on negotiators’ motivational orientation and the amount of information sharing. Negotiating dyads with low–low reciprocation wariness got higher joint gains than those with high–high reciprocation wariness, and information sharing fully mediated the relationship. After the negotiation, low-wary negotiators evaluated the other party more positively and were more willing to interact with their opponents in the future. Contributions and limitations are discussed.     

Social Embeddedness in Electronic Negotiations

This study contributes to electronic negotiation research by analyzing the role of social embeddedness of actors in a controlled laboratory experiment. In particular, we analyze the effect of prior negotiator relationship in different conflict levels in web-based negotiations. We hypothesize that with increasing intensity of conflicts, negotiators who have a personal relationship use more value creating strategies compared to anonymous negotiators. As a consequence, we also hypothesize to find fewer impasses in electronic negotiations involving subjects who are socially embedded. Our results confirm that, in fact, in severe conflicts socially embedded actors reach significantly more agreements than subjects of the control group while such an effect is not found in weak conflict situations. These findings are related to more yielding between embedded actors but not to more value creating behavior. From these results, we can conclude that socially embedded negotiators better manage to reach agreements in difficult situations. Furthermore, an institutionalized pre-negotiation phase which allows negotiators to establish a personal relationship can counteract the threat of impasses.     

The ambiguous role of cultural moderators in intercultural business negotiations

Many modern business negotiations cross borders, and one plausible idea for successfully managing such negotiations is to equip negotiation teams with a “cultural moderator,” an individual who has the same cultural background as the business partner. This study investigates the effect of cultural moderators on both the negotiation process (e.g., use of integrative strategies) and economic outcomes (e.g., profit). Using German and French negotiators in an experimental setting, the authors show that a cultural moderator's influence on the team's use of integrative strategies depends on the moderator's degree of collectivism. With respect to economic outcomes, the presence of a cultural moderator always improves a team's results. Together, these findings suggest that the benefits of using a cultural moderator are not unconditional; rather, they depend on the cultural moderator's cultural background and on the negotiation goals (process vs. outcome) of the team that employs the moderator.     

Getting to Yes in China: Exploring Personality Effects in Chinese Negotiation Styles

Researchers believe that personality affects both the negotiation process and outcomes, but have yet to provide reliable evidence. Using a culturally balanced personality scale SAPPS, we explore the impact of personality on negotiation within a collectivist context–China. Hypothesized relationships based on a buyer/seller model are supported that assertive negotiators are more likely to behave competitively, which leads to better economic outcomes, and open-minded negotiators are more likely to use an integrative approach, which leads to higher satisfaction. This result, similar to those obtained in North America, suggests a universal model of negotiation might exist. Our study also indicates, however, that personality only accounts for a small portion of variance in negotiation behaviors. More research from other perspectives is needed for further exploration.     

Nigerian Business Negotiators: Cultural Characteristics

Abstract

This exploratory study examines cultural characteristics of Nigerian negotiators. There is abundant research evidence that culture affects negotiating styles. As Nigeria constitutes a major market in Africa, knowledge of what behavior to expect from Nigerian negotiators can facilitate the negotiation process.

A questionnaire was administered to 200 Nigerian business men and women of the formal private sector of the economy, who were asked to rate themselves along ten dimensions of factors affected by culture. Responses were analyzed according to gender, age group, occupation and regional group. Statistical tests of significance were carried out.

Results reveal that Nigerians involved in negotiation on behalf of their organizations are likely to be relationship oriented and adopt a win-win approach, although the Yoruba may be less so than other ethnic groups. Nigerians will seek a specific form of agreement and avoid wasting time. They are likely to be moderate in formality and display of emotions. Women are much less likely than men to take high risks. An informal style will be more frequent among negotiators with an engineering background. Most Nigerians below the age of 40 who form part of a negotiating team will expect their leader to make decisions based on team consensus.

People from other countries wanting to do business with Nigerians should familiarize themselves with the way culture is likely to influence the 10 negotiation factors. They will then be better prepared to interpret and understand their counterparts' behavior at the negotiation table, and to communicate effectively.     

Working miracles? regional renewal and East Asian interlinkages

This contribution considers the arguments surrounding claims that a ‘New’ North East is arising as a particular result of an upsurgent regional economic miracle whose frontal East Asian interlinkages promise continuing business and organizational transformations ahead. Largely off-circuit for other economic miracle claims before, this ‘New’ North East benefits from both any supposed British economic miracle at large and that recently associated with East Asia generally. But while current British state-public narratives constantly reiterate miraculous transformational possibilities, others constitute their chances very differently. Using a concept-led social constructionalist perspective this contribution explores alternative interpretations of the North East economic trajectory which constitute any East Asian interlinkages several other ways. It finally acknowledges differing debates over what roles these interlinkages actually play while posing further questions about where else the North East regional economic trajectory might be headed instead.     

Sex Appeal in Advertising: What Consumers Think

This study examined consumers’ attitude toward the use of sexual content in advertisements among there different cultural groups; i.e., individualistic sample (White American), collectivistic sample (US temporal visitors from Asia), and acculturation sample (Asian immigrants). Sixty participants were asked about cultural acceptability of sexual content ads and the favorable attitude toward those ads by using Q-methodology. Asian participants reported less cultural acceptability for sexuality, than either Asian American or North American participants. The findings also revealed that North Americans are more likely to prefer the use of sexual content in advertisement than Asians. Asian-American participants agreed with North American participants in regard to sexually explicit advertising. Implications and limitations were discussed.     

Good Grief! Anxiety Sours the Economic Benefits of First Offers

Two studies tested whether making first offers influences negotiators’ feelings of anxiety and their sense of satisfaction. The results of Study 1 show that the strategy of making the first offer led to decreased levels of satisfaction with the negotiation process and outcomes. This effect was mediated by perceived feelings of anxiety. Study 2 discerned that anxiety about making the first offer derived from self-perception concerns, represented as anxiety about being taken advantage of by the opposing party. In both studies, anxiety led negotiators who made the first offer to be relatively less satisfied with the negotiation, than negotiators who did not make the first offer, despite the increased economic gains associated with making the first offer.     

Negotiators’ Attitudes toward Signing Business Contracts: Evidence from Greece and Israel

This study extends beyond negotiation process and styles, and focuses on negotiators’ tendency to sign formal contracts. Drawing on a risk mitigation perspective, it examines the influence of businesspeople's levels of horizontal and vertical individualism‐collectivism, ethical idealism, and trust propensity on their attitudes toward signing formal negotiated business contracts in Greece and in Israel. A survey questionnaire was translated from English to Greek and to Hebrew, and 649 responses were collected from employees who worked in industries such as banking, insurance, construction, manufacturing, retailing, and tourism in the Greek and Israeli private and public sectors. Our findings suggest that higher levels of horizontal individualism, horizontal collectivism, and ethical idealism increase employees’ tendency to sign formal contracts, whereas lower levels of general trust are associated with a higher propensity to sign formal contracts. Interestingly, employees’ propensity to sign formal contracts was significantly lower in Israel than in Greece. We argue that the propensity to sign formal contracts, and thus to mitigate potential agreement risks, is dependent on the individuals’ cultural and personal attributes. The study provides practitioners with a set of cultural and individual attributes that can serve as predictors of negotiators’ predisposition toward signing business contracts. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Hot Versus Cool Behavioural Styles in Electronic Negotiations: The Impact of Communication Mode

In this paper, we study the effects of synchronous and asynchronous communication mode on electronic negotiations. By applying content analysis, we compare the negotiation processes of two e-negotiation simulations conducted in a synchronous and an asynchronous setting. Our results show significant differences in communication behaviour of subjects. Synchronous negotiation mode leads to less friendly, more affective, and more competitive negotiation behaviour. In the asynchronous communication mode, negotiators exchange more private and task-oriented information and are friendlier. These results suggest that negotiators in the asynchronous mode, who have more time to reflect, cool down and control emotions better while negotiators, who communicate synchronously engage more in emotional and competitive “hot” debates. In addition, negotiators in the asynchronous mode are more satisfied with the process and outcome of the negotiation. We conclude that de-individuation and escalating effects might be caused by communication mode rather than by the ability of the media to transmit social cues.     

Negotiation beliefs: Comparing Americans and the Chinese

We address the micro foundations of international business research by examining negotiation beliefs as a parsimonious guide for international business negotiators. We conceptualise the construct of ‘negotiation beliefs’ as a negotiator’s cognition about the nature of negotiation and effective negotiation strategies. We integrate the negotiation literature and empirically investigate the differences and similarities in the negotiation beliefs of Americans and the Chinese. Across two studies, we conduct a conceptual analysis of negotiation beliefs and develop measures for the culturally similar and culturally different factors of the negotiation beliefs of Chinese and American negotiators. We find that negotiation beliefs can predict negotiation outcomes. Our findings indicate that Americans and the Chinese share negotiation beliefs about cooperation and competition. They also understand negotiation using culturally different factors, namely hierarchy and relationship for the Chinese and economic interest and confrontation for the Americans. We further discuss the theoretical and practical implications for international negotiations, particularly regarding disputes between the US and China.     

An Analytical Approach to Offer Generation in Concession-Based Negotiation Processes

We develop analytical models to assist negotiators in formulating offers in a concession-based negotiation process. Our approach is based on plausible requirements for offers formulated in terms of utility values for both the negotiator making the offer and the opponent receiving it. These requirements include value creation, reciprocity, and the fact that an offer actually leads to concessions. Trade-offs between their own and the opponent’s utilities can be formulated by negotiators and define a search path in the utility space. Solutions along this search path are then mapped back into the issue space to generate actual offers. We present and discuss several variants of optimization models to generate such offers and illustrate them with an numerical example.     

Negotiators’ Effectiveness with Mixed Agendas: An Empirical Exploration of Tasks,Decisions and Performance Criteria

This article analyzes the performance of 1,060 individuals in dyadic, mixed-agenda negotiations in order to further understanding of individual negotiators’ effectiveness and test the applicability of common negotiation advice. To evaluate performance, both established and new measures were employed. In general, individuals were not effective, although there was wide variation that included highly effective negotiators. In striking contrast to previous research, high-performing individuals’ achievements were not significantly related to maximum joint value creation or to maximum logrolling. Most of the variation in benchmarked (best-practices) effectiveness and in partner-compared effectiveness was explained by individuals’ decisions on three types of agenda items: pure conflict, reverse priorities, and no-conflict. Each had a significant effect (with one exception), but decisions on pure conflict influenced individual effectiveness much more than decisions on either of the other two. Additional results include the extent to which negotiators tended to compromise, logroll, agree on common values, and modify their decisions across items within an item type. Among other implications, these findings argue for richer, more nuanced treatment of individual effectiveness and for advice that is attentive to the structural features of particular negotiations.     

Negotiating with the Chinese: EANTs and all

The Chinese negotiation style remains enigmatic for many foreign negotiators. This article is written for foreign negotiators going to China and explores how Chinese negotiators think about ethically ambiguous negotiation tactics (EANTs), focusing on how the relationship with the other party influences the appropriateness of such tactics. Two studies are presented: an interpretation of interview data followed by a survey that shows Chinese negotiators rate EANTs as significantly less appropriate when they have a relationship with the other party. Advice for negotiators going to China is provided. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Negotiators' Communication, Perception of Their Counterparts, and Performance in Dyadic E-negotiations

The aim of this study was to improve our understanding of negotiation strategies, behaviors, and outcomes, and the relationships between these factors based on data collected from questionnaires, actual behavior during the negotiation process implemented using e-negotiation system, and the negotiation outcomes. This study clustered the negotiators based on either the negotiators' own strategies or their thoughts about those of their partners. This resulted in a division into cooperative and noncooperative clusters. We found that the negotiators whose own strategies are less cooperative tend to submit more offers but fewer messages. However, these people consIDer that they have less control over the negotiation process compared with those who adopt a more cooperative strategy, who make fewer offers but send more messages. Those in the cooperative cluster consistently feel friendlier about the negotiation and more satisfied with the outcome and their performance. Further, there is a correlation not only between self-strategies and the thoughts about partners' strategies, but also between strategies and final agreements. Finally, the proportion of negotiations reaching agreement is larger for the cooperative cluster than for the noncooperative cluster.     

浅谈国际商务谈判中的跨文化问题及对策

国际商务谈判是商务活动的重要内容 ,不可避免地要遇到跨文化问题。跨文化问题阻碍着商务谈判的顺利进行。探讨东西文化、国际商务谈判的跨文化差异问题 ,分析中西方谈判决策过程中的文化差异以及谈判风格的不同 ,尤其是了解、宽容多元文化 ,掌握跨文化谈判的对策 ,对提高国际商务谈判的成功有一定的帮助     

Using complex networks analysis to assess the evolution of international economic integration: The cases of East Asia and Latin America

This paper exploits recently-developed indicators based on network analysis to investigate the pattern of international integration followed by East Asian countries and compares it with the Latin American performance. Standard trade openness indicators fall short of portraying the peculiarity of the Asian experience, and of explaining why other emerging markets with similar characteristics have been less successful over the last 25 years. The analysis offers an alternative perspective on the issue regarding international economic integration by taking into account the whole structure of international trade relationships and by determining both the position of countries in the world trade network, and its evolution over time. We find that East Asian countries are more integrated into the world economy, as they have moved from the periphery of the network towards its core. Our results support the idea that the degree of openness matters but it is not enough to characterize economic integration. The number and identity of trade partners, and the specific individual structure of trade for each country, need to be incorporated in order to fully characterize international economic integration. By doing so, it is possible to argue that the integration process of the East Asian countries mirrors their high economic performance, while the lower degree of integration of Latin America can be related to the lack of economic development of the region, even though their degree of openness has increased.