Identifying trainers' knowledge of training transfer research findings – closing the gap between research and practice

Training professionals were surveyed concerning their knowledge of transfer of training research. Survey items were developed from an integrative literature review based on empirical findings of factors that directly or indirectly (through learning) influence training transfer. Survey results suggest that training professionals are in agreement with empirical transfer findings in the areas of training design and the work environment, but differ in their agreement of how individual differences impact transfer success and of relevant transfer evaluation findings. Training professionals were more familiar with academic transfer research when they occupied higher job positions within their organization, held a training certification and had a college degree. The results of our study and the implications for addressing the research‐to‐practice gap among training professionals are also discussed.     

Transfer of learning from management development programmes: testing the Holton model

Transfer of learning from management development programmes has been described as the effective and continuing application back at work of the knowledge and skills gained on those programmes. It is a very important issue for organizations today, given the large amounts of investment in these programmes and the small amounts of that investment that actually translates into an improved individual and organizational performance. This paper describes the testing of the Holton model of learning transfer and suggests amendments to the model where appropriate. A sample of participants on a management development programme within the Irish health service completed the Learning Transfer System Inventory based on the Holton model. The data obtained were analysed using multiple regression and partial correlation techniques. Results indicate that the model does adequately represent the effects of its factors, although a slightly revised model is presented. Important relationships between factors are identified, and the central role of the learners’ personal capacity for transfer (hitherto unreported in the literature) and their motivation to transfer in facilitating transfer is highlighted. In practical terms, the tested model can be used as a diagnostic tool by identifying individual, training design and work environment transfer issues in need of attention and by developing strategies to deal with them. It can also be used as a framework for the evaluation of training and development interventions, examining factors outside the traditional range of most training evaluation efforts and providing a more complete picture of the success or otherwise of that intervention.     

Social support at the workplace,motivation to transfer and training transfer: a multilevel indirect effects model

Supervisor support, peer support and transfer motivation have been identified as important predictors of training transfer. Transfer motivation is thought to mediate the support–training transfer relationship. Especially after team training interventions that include all team members (i.e. whole‐team training), individual perception of these factors might be shared among team members. However, an integration of the team level in the training transfer process is rare, yet still needed. Analyzing 194 employees from 34 teams in the context of whole‐team training interventions, we found similar relationships and processes at both levels of analysis: social support enhances transfer motivation at the individual and team levels. Furthermore, motivation to transfer increases training transfer and serves as a connecting mechanism in the social support–training transfer link. The results underline the importance of: (1) considering multiple levels in theories and research about the training transfer process; and (2) ensuring the practice of individual‐directed support and a shared, supportive climate within teams.     

The transfer of training: what really matters

Although organizations invest billions of dollars in training every year, many trained competencies reportedly fail to transfer to the workplace. Researchers have long examined the ‘transfer problem’, uncovering a wealth of information regarding the transfer of training. Inconsistencies remain, however, and organizations may find it difficult to pinpoint exactly which factors are most critical. Using Baldwin and Ford's model of transfer, we identify the factors relating to trainee characteristics (cognitive ability, self‐efficacy, motivation, perceived utility of training), training design (behavioral modeling, error management, realistic training environments) and the work environment (transfer climate, support, opportunity to perform, follow‐up) that have exhibited the strongest, most consistent relationships with the transfer of training. We describe our reasoning for extracting such variables from the literature and conclude by discussing potential implications for practice and future research.     

Social support and motivation to transfer as predictors of training transfer: testing full and partial mediation using meta‐analytic structural equation modelling

Social support and motivation to transfer are important components in conceptual models on transfer of training. Previous research indicates that both support and motivation influence transfer. To date, however, it is not yet clear if social support influences transfer of training directly, or if this influence is mediated by motivation to transfer. Conceptually, some models assume that motivation to transfer fully mediates the influence of social support on transfer (full mediation models), whereas other models also include direct relationships between social support and transfer of training (partial mediation models). In addition, some models specify finer sub‐dimensions of social support, such as supervisor support, peer support, supervisor sanctions and feedback/coaching. What is the relative influence of these dimensions on the transfer of training? To what extent does motivation to transfer mediate the influence of different support dimensions and transfer? Aimed at answering these questions, the present meta‐analysis (k = 32 studies, N = 5487 participants) examined the relationships between social support, motivation to transfer and transfer of training. Social support was conceptualized in four dimensions: supervisor support, peer support, supervisor sanctions and feedback/coaching. Meta‐analytic structural equation modelling was used to test a partial mediation model and a full mediation model. Full mediation resulted in a better model fit. Peer support was the strongest predictor of motivation to transfer, and feedback/coaching was the strongest predictor of transfer of training. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings for developing conceptual models, measurement instruments and training interventions are discussed.     

The conditions for successful knowledge transfer in development‐aid training programs

The shortage of qualified human capital is a major impediment to development. In the field of international development cooperation, training programs (TPs) have been widely employed to enhance the capacity of workforces in developing countries. This paper investigates the conditions in which these programs can contribute not only to individual human resource development but also to organization‐level reform and innovation in developing countries. The methods were regression analyses of training monitoring records as well as follow‐up e‐mail interviews with former participants of information and communication technology TPs sponsored by the Japanese International Cooperation Agency. The research reveals that bilateral communication between training participants and the home organizations during the training plays a key role in increasing the probability of successful organization‐level transfer of individual‐level learning, irrespective of the original level of organization's absorptive capacity. The researchers examine the differences in transfer factors between the development aid context in their research and the paradigm case of the business organization found in much of the transfer literature.     

The impact of practical relevance on training transfer: evidence from a service quality training program for German bank clerks

The management literature provides a variety of recommendations as to how workers’ customer orientation might be improved, including through training. Crucial factors in the process of transferring the contents of service quality training programs to practice, however, have not yet been sufficiently analysed. This study proposes and tests a model of transfer motivation and training transfer via structural equation modelling, validating Baldwin and Ford's framework and Kirkpatrick's levels of evaluation. Following the recommendation of Alliger et al., the present study analyses the relationship between Kirkpatrick's levels of evaluation, paying attention to the specificity of the measures at each level. The survey collects data from 213 German bank employees who attended a training program aimed at improving service quality. As hypothesized, the perceived practical relevance of the training was found to exert a strong influence on the reaction of the participants and had a substantial total effect on the motivation to transfer and on actual transfer. Subject to the limitations of the research methodology employed here, it is concluded that trainee satisfaction needs to be conceptually distinguished from perceived practical relevance and that the latter is the main driving force for transfer motivation and transfer.     

How to predict transfer of training? Investigating the application of the unified model of task-specific motivation

Transfer motivation is an important factor influencing transfer of training. However, earlier research often did not investigate transfer motivation as a multidimensional construct. The unified model of task-specific motivation (UMTM) takes into account that (transfer) motivation is multidimensional by including both affective and cognitive motivational components and their antecedents. Prior research has provided evidence that the UMTM can predict self-reported transfer of training, but is unclear whether it also can predict transfer reported by expert external raters. Moreover, it is unclear whether controlling for prior knowledge matters for the relationship between transfer motivation and transfer of training. This study improves on existing research by accounting for both of these gaps in the literature. Data were collected among 299 participants who filled in a questionnaire about the UMTM components directly after attending a writing training. They also handed in written documents before, and 6 weeks after the training, which were rated on transfer by trainers. Outcomes showed that components of the UMTM positively predict externally reported transfer when prior knowledge was controlled for. The outcomes imply that the UMTM has predictive value for transfer of training and points out which factors influence whether transfer does or does not occur.     

The impact of workplace support and identity on training transfer: a case study of drug and alcohol safety training in Australia

Previous research has indicated that the transfer climate of work organisations is an important factor in determining the degree to which knowledge, skills and abilities gained in training transfer to the workplace. In particular, workplace social support from supervisors and coworkers is consistently cited as an important factor that can facilitate or inhibit training transfer. However, research evidence regarding the impact of workplace social support on training transfer is mixed. In order to address this issue a study was conducted to identify under what conditions workplace social support impacts on training transfer. This study evaluated a workplace drug and alcohol training programme * * The training evaluated in this study is part of the Building Trades Group Drug and Alcohol Programme. This is a national drug and alcohol programme for the Australian Building and Construction Industry. For more information on this programme, visit: http//www.btgda.org.au .
to examine the impact of workplace social support and identification with workplace groups on training transfer. Results indicated that the influence of workplace social support on training transfer was moderated by the degree to which trainees identified with workplace groups that provided this support. This study supports the proposition that in order to fully understand training transfer, and to design effective training programmes, training research and practice needs to focus on both the personal and situational factors that may interact to influence learning and transfer.     

The mitigating effects of uncertainty on ‘e’ innovation propensity: some service sector evidence

This paper reports the findings of a study that sought to explore a range of technical, financial and social issues that the literature suggests influences e-innovation propensity. The research was conducted on a sample of knowledge-intensive business service SMEs in Northern Ireland, Republic of Ireland and New Zealand within a business-to-consumer context. Qualitative methodologies (in-depth interviews and projective techniques) were employed to investigate the research problem. The findings highlight a number of specific issues that call into question the value of an e-business strategy, such as uncertainties surrounding knowledge acquisition, disintermediation effects and sustainability of an e-business. These issues continue to negate e-innovation propensity. The paper proposes practical suggestions to alleviate the mitigating effects of uncertainty that are impacting on e-innovation propensity. The conclusions derived from this research, along with the modelling of the uncertainty factors extend existing knowledge and also set the precedent for further empirical research in other country and industry settings.     

The Influence of Internal Communities of Practice on Customer Perceived Value in Professional Service Relationships

Effective customer-related knowledge transfer can be seen as the cornerstone of customer value creation in collaborative relationships between professional service organisations and their customers. Our intention in this paper is to describe how different work groups within organisations (communities of practice) influence the perceived customer value. We approach this phenomenon from a relationship management perspective and use literature from relationship marketing, organisation research and knowledge management as a theoretical basis. Empirically the paper is based on an information-rich explorative case study of a professional service organisation, operating in the consultancy and training business, and its relationship with one of its customers.     

Cultural factors and beliefs influencing transfer of training

Most organizations invest in people for training. Training effectiveness is arguably constrained because of inadequate transfer of learning from the training environment to the workplace environment. Training‐job relevance and the extent of transfer have been found limited. Although performance is affected by a number of factors, training is often used as a solution to all problems. Trying to fix non‐training problems with training solutions is futile, yet often attempted in the context of Nepal. Thus, the growing recognition of the problem of inadequate transfer of training has been recognized as a compelling issue. This article presents a brief discussion of the data and corresponding findings pertaining to one of the research questions included in a recent doctoral study. The purpose of the study was to examine the extent of transfer of learning from the training environment to the workplace environment, and identify cultural factors and beliefs held by stakeholders influencing such transfer in the context of civil and corporate sector organizations in Nepal. What are the cultural factors and beliefs that influence the extent of transfer of training? This was one of the questions that prompted the study.     

Talk up or criticize? Customer responses to WOM about competitors during social interactions

Popular metrics such as the Net Promoter Score (NPS) highlights many benefits of word of mouth (WOM) to firms. Is WOM all it is claimed to be? Building on social identity theory, this research develops a conceptual model of WOM exchange in social settings and tests the model with customer surveys of three service sectors. The findings show that the effects of (1) positive and negative WOM (P/NWOM) received about competitors and (2) perceived presence of critical incidents (PPCIs) on P/NWOM given about own service provider are far from intuitive. Responses to PWOM received counter the suggestions in the NPS literature. The findings also indicate that the best firms can hope for when receiving NWOM about competitors is that their customers remain silent. It is recommended that firms communicate a message that is consistent with the nuanced views expressed by friends in social circles, rather than a uniformly superior positioning.     

What predicts skill transfer? An exploratory study of goal orientation,training self‐efficacy and organizational supports

Results from a study examining the predictors of skill transfer from an instructional to a work environment are presented. Prior research indicates that skill transfer is a function of both individual and contextual factors. A total of 186 employees from a work organization were surveyed on individual dimensions (goal orientation, training self‐efficacy) and contextual factors (supervisor and peer support). Pre‐training motivation was proposed as proximal training outcome and further connected to the distal outcome, skill transfer. Analyses with structural equation modeling using EQS indicate that individual dimensions, such as mastery‐approach goal orientation and training self‐efficacy, are related to pre‐training motivation. Also, contextual factors, such as peer support, predicted both pre‐training motivation and skill transfer, while supervisor support was unrelated to either pre‐training motivation or skill transfer. Pre‐training motivation, in turn, was related to skill transfer. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.     

Effects of social media on consumers’ purchase decisions: evidence from Taobao

Given the rapid growth of social media, it is important to understand the effects of social media on consumers’ purchase decisions in the e-commerce environment. However, although some e-commerce sites have started to link themselves to social media to enhance user interactions, previous studies of social media and service management have shed little light on the effects of social media on consumers’ purchase decisions. This study proposes a theoretical research model that includes social media factors, social impact transfer factors, and e-commerce outcome factors. We posit social interaction ties and social media commitment as key elements of social media. An online questionnaire was conducted to test the research model and hypotheses based on survey data collected from Taobao, the largest e-commerce site in China. The analysis results indicate that social interaction ties have significant positive effects on social impact transfer factors and trust in online vendor, whereas they do not directly influence visit intention. Social media commitment plays a crucial role in increasing social impact transfer factors and e-commerce outcomes. The findings reveal the different effects of normative and informational social influences on consumer purchase decisions. Further implications are discussed.     

Measuring transfer of training: Review and implications for future research

Research on transfer of training (training transfer) has flourished in recent years. Given the absence so far of any comprehensive review of the various transfer measurement instruments used, a systematic review of research to date was performed. Three main findings emerged from the 51 studies reviewed: (1) there is a divergence between the definitions of transfer described in the studies and the concept of transfer reflected in the measurement instruments; (2) there are many different kinds of measurement instruments; and (3) scant information has been published on the parameters of the training whose transfer is being measured. In light of these findings, a research agenda is proposed for evaluating training transfer.     

The effects of training design,individual characteristics and work environment on transfer of training

This study aims to gain insight into some of the factors that determine the transfer of training to the work context. The present research examined the relationship between three types of predictors on transfer of training, including training design, individual characteristics and work environment. Data was collected at two points in time from 182 employees in a large grocery organization. The results indicated that transfer design, performance self‐efficacy, training retention and performance feedback were significantly related to transfer of training. Contrary to expectation, supervisory support was not significantly related to transfer of training. These results suggest that in order to enhance transfer of training, organizations should design training that gives trainees the ability to transfer learning, reinforces the trainee's beliefs in their ability to transfer, ensures the training content is retained over time and provides appropriate feedback regarding employee job performance following training activities.     

The moderating role of self‐efficacy in the organizational culture–training transfer relationship

This paper aims to examine the combined effects of self‐efficacy and organizational culture on employees' transfer of knowledge/skills acquired through training. The questionnaires were distributed to 252 newly hired employees working in a service organization in Greece. Each of the independent variables examined added incrementally to the prediction of training transfer. Moreover, self‐efficacy was found to act as a moderator in the organizational culture–training transfer relationship. High self‐efficacy was found to strengthen both achievement culture–training transfer as well as humanistic culture‐training transfer relationships, whereas low self‐efficacy weakened these relationships. The study has practical implications by providing insights into ways of engaging employees in transferring the skills acquired during training. This investigation extends previous research by demonstrating that self‐efficacy acts as an accentuating factor in the relationship between organizational culture orientations and new hires' transfer of training.     

Employee post‐training behaviour and performance: evaluating the results of the training process

Despite the fact that firms invest in training, there is considerable evidence to show that training programmes often fail to achieve the intended result of improving worker and organization performance. The purpose of this paper is to examine the medium‐ to long‐term effects of training programmes on firms by means of an integrated research model combining the principal factors that the existing literature has shown to be related to training transfer and also by examining the relationship between training transfer and operational performance. The transfer factors chosen are training design, trainee self‐efficacy and work environment. The validity of this model is tested by applying the structural equation modelling approach to data from 126 employees who have participated in various training programmes in a number of Greek organizations. The results indicate that the design of a training programme has the strongest impact on post‐training job performance, along with trainees' self‐efficacy and post‐training behaviour.     

International knowledge transfers through expatriates

International knowledge transfer processes and related internal stickiness factors have recently been targets of increasing research interest. However, the role of expatriate managers in these international knowledge transfers is not well understood. The objectives of the present study were (1) to analyze what kind of knowledge is transferred within MNCs and what is the role of expatriates in these transfer processes and (2) develop a theoretical framework on internal stickiness factors faced by the expatriates involved in the knowledge transfer processes on the basis of the literature, and test it empirically. The findings indicate that the role of expatriate managers was very central in the transfer processes. Furthermore, support was received for the theoretical framework of internal stickiness factors. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.