Role of Transnational Corporations in the Evolution of a High-Tech Industry: The Case of India's Software Industry

India's software industry presents the case of an internationally competitive high-tech industry from a developing economy. This paper takes the evolution of the industry in terms of human capital accumulation. The initial stock of human capital leads to entry of transnational corporations (TNC), which triggers a cumulative process of further human capital accumulation through a process of externalities (spillovers) governed by firm-level and market structure dynamics. Spillovers from TNC operations are more effective when TNCs operate at higher end of technology and build backward linkages with local firms and institutions in a developing economy. The empirical exercises, based on the analysis of qualitative information collected through field interviews and econometric analysis of firm-level panel data, provide evidence of the positive contribution of TNCs for the evolution of the industry.     

The challenge by domestic enterprises to the transnational corporations' domination: A case study of the Argentine pharmaceutical industry

Given the relative reduction in the rate of innovation of the large TNCs operating in the pharmaceutical field and the reduced interest in the Argentine market by most of the TNCs in the late 1960s and the early 1970s, domestic firms have been able to challenge the domination of the pharmaceutical industry by foreign enterprises. Using the techniques of product differentiation, they have been able to launch more new medicines into the market than foreign enterprises. This was done through transfer of technology agreements in a number of cases, relying on non-patented sources for the provision of active components in other cases and devoting some resources to local R and D. As a result of the challenge, foreign participation in the market for finished products in Argentina was not high by international standards (57% in 1972), the majority of the pharmaceutical sub-markets showed a medium degree of business concentration and the ranking of the leading firms included 6 local enterprises among the 15 leaders of the country.     

Patents and trademarks in pharmaceuticals

While the role of patents and trademarks in reinforcing the market power of TNCs operating in the pharmaceutical industry is beyond doubt, the possibilities of reducing such market power through public policies dealing with industrial property in developing countries are less clear. Evidence on policies aimed at eliminating or weakening patent rights, and/or at promoting the use of generic names instead of trademarks for pharmaceuticals is examined. It is concluded that these policies are a necessary but not a sufficient condition for modifying the current market structure of the pharmaceutical industry in developing countries.     

由CER产品性质探究我国碳交易发展

低碳经济作为世界经济发展的新方向,越来越受到人们关注。中国作为目前世界上最大的CDM供应方,碳交易市场潜力巨大。本文通过对于CDM交易中CER产品的价值、价格、风险分析,针对我国碳交易发展,提出加强赤道银行建设、增强产品异质性、提高议价能力、摆脱产业链下游地位、开创衍生品市场等对策,其根本目的是加快研发环保减排技术、提高国民节能环保意识、增强我国在国际市场上的话语权。     

Has International Trade Affected Workers’ Bargaining Power?

In this paper, we investigate whether globalization has affected workers’ bargaining power in the Belgian manufacturing industry over the period 1987–1995 using a sample of more than 20,000 firms. We find little evidence of international trade and inward foreign direct investment having an impact on the workers’ bargaining power. We find some evidence that technological change has a positive impact on the workers’ bargaining power. JEL no. C23, D21, F16, F23, J50, L13     

中国股票所有权的分割、流通及对投资银行业的制约

I. IntroductionSince establishment of the two stock markets in Shanghai and Shenzhen, the markets havegrown substantially to over 1,200 listed companies in 2003. The total stock marketcapitalization reached over 45 percent of Chinas gross domestic product (GDP) as of April2000, a figure comparable to that in developed countries, according to Fung and Leung(2002, p.100). Development of the Chinese stock market is critically important, because itenables Chinese firms to raise external capi…     

Compensation negotiation and corporate governance: the evidence from China

This paper examines CEO pay dispersion for the listed companies in China. We apply a two-tier stochastic frontier model to the CEO compensation framework where asymmetric information generates a surplus between the minimum wage that CEOs accept and the maximum payment that firms offer. This surplus leads to CEO pay dispersion coming from the negotiation power between the CEO and the firm. We generate the surplus extracted by each CEO-firm pair and analyze how corporate governance affects them. An empirical analysis finds that: (1) On average, CEOs are paid 23.26% more than the benchmark; (2) additionally, we examine the bargaining power in state-owned enterprises (SOEs) and non-state-owned enterprises (non-SOEs). We find that CEOs in SOEs have less bargaining power due to compensation regulations. We then examine compensation for new CEOs hired externally and find that CEOs hired externally have less bargaining power on average; and (3) corporate governance has a significant effect on the salary bargaining power of each agent. More specifically, the CEO-Chairman dummy has a significant positive effect on the bargaining power of firms and CEOs, but the latter is larger. Board size has a negative effect on both. Independent directors help improve the bargaining power of the firms and board meeting times help enhance the bargaining power of the CEOs. Equity concentration has a significant negative effect on both sides.     

Health economics: Fundamentals and flow of funds Thomas Getzen, 2004, pp. 464

Conclusion A fundamental question is whether society will be willing to spend an ever increasing portion of its GDP on healthcare. Accordingly, as Getzen notes, the battle over revenues in the health sector is a constant phenomenon as the various players seek to improve their bargaining position. In the healthcare industry as in other industries, the segment with market power reaps the most profit. Historically, doctors had the market power, then the market power shifted to the insurance companies. In 2004, hospitals and doctors have improved their bargaining power relative to insurance companies. Getzen documents these battles over resources through his flow of founds approach. He has provided an excellent treatment for health economics courses and others interested in this increasingly improtant and contentious area of study.     

The development of the ‘electronics complex’ and government policies in Brazil

This paper reports some of the results of research conducted at the Instituto de Economia Industrial of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro on the pattern of development of two industries of the ‘electronics complex’ — electronic data processing equipment (EDPE) and electronic semiconductor components (SCC). The industries were selected because of their technological and economic importance and for their potential inter-relatedness, as well as for policy-related reasons.The research focused on the analysis of the international characteristics of the two industries (based mainly on secondary sources) and an empirical investigation of their pattern of competition in Brazil. Following a brief characterization of the ‘electronics complex,’ the next section of this paper describes the evolution of imports, local production and exports and the pattern of competition in the Brazilian market. The third section analyzes in more detail the inter-relations between consumers, international firms, local producers and Government policies, focusing mainly on the EDPE industry ‘infant-industry’ experience. The last section focuses on the intended policy for the SCC industry, exploring the implications of industrial interdependence and drawing from the experience of the EDPE industry. The article concludes by presenting some requisite characteristics of policy for fostering an ‘electronics complex’, which may be useful not only for Brazil, but for other LDCs as well.     

研发密集度与跨国公司组织模式选择——基于金融市场摩擦的分析

本文探讨了在东道国金融市场不完善的条件下,行业研发密集度与跨国公司组织模式之间的关系。本文的基本逻辑是,因为研发密集度高的行业对东道国金融市场的依赖程度更高,而跨国公司可以通过选择组织模式和投资区位以消除金融市场不完全的影响,因此,不同的行业跨国公司的组织模式和区位选择会随行业研发密集度的不同而不同。本文分析结果表明:首先,在研发密集度较高的行业,更多的企业会选择在发达地区进行FDI,而在落后地区进行外包;其次,随着落后地区金融市场效率的提高,所有行业在发达和落后地区的外包都会变得更加普遍;最后,本文还进一步分析了行业生产率分布对企业组织模式的影响。本文的结论为现有经验研究结果提供了理论支持。     

The determinants of competitive success in the interwar British radio industry1

This article discusses the sources of competitive advantage in the interwar British radio industry. Specifically, it examines why sections of the industry that reaped substantial monopoly rents from the downstream value chain failed to dominate the industry. During the 1920s Marconi (which controlled the fundamental UK patents) had a key cost advantage, as had other members of the ‘Big Six’ electrical engineering firms which formed the BBC and were granted preferential royalties. Meanwhile the valve manufacturers' cartel was also able to extract high rents from set manufacturers. The vertical integration literature suggests that input monopolists have incentives to control downstream production. Yet—in contrast to the gramophone industry, which became concentrated into two huge companies following market saturation in the 1930s—radio retained a much more competitive structure. The Big Six failed to capitalize fully on their initial cost advantages owing to logistical weaknesses in supplying markets subject to rapid technical and design obsolescence. Subsequently, during the 1930s, marketing innovations are shown to have played a key role in allowing several independents to establish successful brands. This gave them sufficient scale to provide strong bargaining positions with input suppliers, negating most of their initial cost disadvantage.     

Renting Goodwill in International Marketing Channels: An Analysis of Pricing Strategies and Bargaining Power

This paper investigates the pricing decisions of foreign manufacturers in international markets within a bargaining framework with asymmetric information and the rental of goodwill. The key findings are: first, the foreign manufacturer follows a mark-up pricing strategy in which its gross margin and the quality premium over the domestic product are shared with the importer. Second, a manufacturer–importer contract occurs only when the manufacturer’s bargaining power is within an admissible range which shrinks as transaction costs increase. Third, the domestic consumer will only purchase the foreign product if the importer’s goodwill in the domestic market is sufficiently large to signal quality. The paper contributes to the literature on exchange relationships between foreign manufacturers and importers.     

Labor markets and innovation

We examine the effects on the comparative R&D performance of firms of the different labor market conditions they face. The conditions we consider are the bargaining strength of the unions firms face and the contents of the bargain they negotiate. In particular we consider whether unions can bargain over when new technology is introduced. In the theoretical part of the paper we show that increased union strength can sometimes increase the possibility that a firm will successfully innovate, but that allowing a union to delay the introduction of new technology generally reduces a firm's R&D success. Empirical evidence from the United Kingdom shows that both union strength and the type of bargain that unions undertake have significant impacts on R&D spending.     

Do all networks facilitate international commerce? US law firms and the international market for corporate control

This paper estimates the effects of several American law firms' international networks of offices on the total value of overseas mergers and acquisitions (M&A) by US corporations. Nowadays many nations can review proposed mergers and US law firms help clients overcome such regulatory hurdles, effectively greasing the market for corporate control. However, they can also oppose transactions that are inimical to their clients' interests. I present evidence that suggests that Baker & McKenzie—the US law firm with the most overseas offices—has facilitated such transactions, whereas the combined effect of the next five largest American law firms has tended to reduce such M&A. J. Japanese Int. Economies 17 (4) (2003) 520–537.     

Is Audit Committee Equity Compensation Related to Audit Fees?*

Section 301 of the Sarbanes‐Oxley Act (SOX) implicitly assumes that audit committees can independently determine audit fees. Critics of section 301 have questioned this assumption in particular, and the efficacy of section 301 more generally. In response, the SEC issued a concept release in 2015 calling for public disclosure of the process that audit committees follow for determining auditor compensation. Motivated by these calls and the widespread use of stocks and options to compensate firms' independent directors, we examine the relation between equity compensation granted to audit committee members and audit fees. Using a sample of 3,685 firm‐year observations during 2007–2015, we find a negative relation between audit committee equity compensation and audit fees, consistent with larger equity pay inducing audit committee members to compromise independence by paying lower audit fees. These findings are robust to controlling for endogeneity, firm size, alternative measures of equity compensation, alternative samples, and an alternative treatment of extreme values. We further show that larger equity compensation is associated with lower earnings quality. We also find that the negative effect of equity compensation on audit fees is stronger when city‐level audit market competition is high. However, this negative relation disappears when (i) firms face high litigation risk, (ii) auditors have stronger bargaining power, (iii) the audit committee includes a high proportion of accounting experts, and (iv) auditors are industry experts. Our results are relevant for regulators and investors.     

Economic Liberalization and the Computer Industry: Comparing Outcomes in Brazil and Mexico

Market liberalization has been carried out by many developing countries in the hopes of stimulating trade, investment and technology transfer. In order to analyze the impacts of liberalization on a specific industry sector, this paper compares the experiences of Brazil and Mexico in liberalizing the computer industry in the 1990s. The authors conclude that liberalization leads to lower prices and more rapid diffusion of computer use throughout the economy, but at a cost to domestic computer firms who were harmed by foreign competition. Both countries saw an increase in computer production, but Mexico's production was mainly for export to the United States, while Brazil was producing for the domestic market. The differences between outcomes in the two countries have been determined more by environmental factors than by the nature and pace of liberalization.     

THE IMPACT OF ACQUISITIONS ON COMPANY PERFORMANCE: EVIDENCE FROM A LARGE PANEL OF UK FIRMS

This paper investigates the impact of acquisitions on companyperformance using a large panel of UK-quoted companies observedover a long time period. The results indicate that acquisitionshave a detrimental impact on company performance and that companygrowth through acquisition yields a lower rate of return thangrowth through internal investment. Given the penchant for takeoversin the UK, as witnessed by the record level of takeovers onthe London equity market last year, our findings suggest thatneither firms nor shareholders are being best served by theexisting financial and industrial system.     

Union and Debt: Evidence from Chinese Private Firms

Do unions really matter in China? Using a dataset containing more than 110 thousand Chinese private manufacturing firms, this paper is the first attempt to examine how unions' bargaining power affects firms' capital structures. We find that: (1) the firms' debt levels are often positively associated with their unions' bargaining powers; (2) when a firm is in financial distress, the management is more likely to issue more debt to strengthen its bargaining power against the union and increase its residual income; (3) compared with long-term debt, short-term debt is a better option for the management to increase its bargaining power and residual income. Our research indicates that the unions of private Chinese firms are an important policy instrument for the management rather than useless decorations, which provides valuable insights for us to understand the employee–employer relations and firms' capital structures in emerging economies.     

经理人市场对高管薪酬的影响—来自高管跳槽现象的证据

基于2007－2014年A股上市公司数据，从高管跳槽现象的视角，对经理人市场如何影响高管薪酬进行探究。研究发现，公司在发生高管跳槽之后会显著提高现任高管的薪酬，尤其是基于股权的薪酬。现任高管的薪酬提升幅度与其在经理人市场上的流动性有关，也与跳槽高管的特征（对原公司的重要性、新工作的吸引力）有关。同时，通过引入倾向得分匹配（ PSM）模型，发现发生高管跳槽的公司在事前有显著的薪酬劣势，而事后的加薪使这些公司显著的薪酬劣势消失。另外，加薪措施能够有效地防止现任高管的跳槽。研究结果说明，经理人市场中的高管跳槽行为是公司薪酬政策的重要决定因素之一。     

Competition and productivity in Japanese manufacturing industries

This paper examines the determinants of productivity in Japanese manufacturing industries, looking particularly at the impact of product market competition on productivity. Using a newly available panel data on around ten thousand firms in Japanese manufacturing for the years 1994–2000, I show that competition, as measured by lower level of industrial price–cost margin, enhances productivity growth, controlling for a broad range of industrial and firm-specific characteristics. Moreover, I suggest that market power, as measured by either individual firm's price–cost margin or market share, has negative impact on productivity level of R & D performing firms. J. Japanese Int. Economies 19 (4) (2005) 586–616.